f^l\M^ 


THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  SINGING 

^1, 


THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

NKW  YORK   •    BOSTON  •    CHICAGO 
ATLANTA   •    SAN    FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN  &  CO  ,  Limited 

LONDON  •  BOMBAY  •  CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE 

THE  MACMILLAN  CO.  OF  CANADA,  Ltd. 

TORONTO 


The 

Psychology  of  Singing 


A  Rational  Method  of  Voice  Culture 
based  on  a  Scientific  Analysis  of 
all   Systems^   Ancient   and   Modern 


By 

David  C.  Taylor 


THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 
1917 

All  rights  reserved 


T3 


Copyright,  1908, 
By  the  MACMILLAN  COMPANY. 


Set  up  and  electrotyped.     Published  November,  1908.     Reprinted 
January,  1910 ;  May,  1917. 


Notfaootj  i^wss : 
Berwick  &  Smith  Co.,  Norwood,  Mass.,  U.S.A. 


%o  9dV  ^ot^n 


WHOSE  DEVOTION  TO  TRUTH  AND  EARNEST 
LABOR  HAS  PROMPTED  ALL  MY  EFFORTS 
THIS  WORK  IS  AFFECTIONATELY  DEDICATED 


360539 


PEEFACE 

A  PECULIAE  gap  exists  between  the  accepted 
theoretical  basis  of  instruction  in  singing  and 
the  actual  methods  of  vocal  teachers.  Judging  by 
the  number  of  scientific  treatises  on  the  voice,  the 
academic  observer  would  be  led  to  believe  that 
a  coherent  Science  of  Voice  Culture  has  been 
evolved.  Modern  methods  of  instruction  in  sing- 
ing are  presumed  to  embody  a  system  of  exact  and 
infallible  rules  for  the  management  of  the  voice. 
Teachers  of  singing  in  all  the  musical  centers  of 
Europe  and  America  claim  to  follow  a  definite 
plan  in  the  training  of  voices,  based  on  established 
scientific  principles.  But  a  practical  acquaint- 
ance with  the  modern  art  of  Voice  Culture  reveals 
the  fact  that  the  laws  of  tone-production  deduced 
from  the  scientific  investigation  of  the  voice  do 
not  furnish  a  satisfactory  basis  for  a  method  of 
training  voices. 

Throughout  the  entire  vocal  profession,  among 
singers,   teachers,   and   students   alike,   there   is 


viii  PREFACE 

a  general  feeling  of  the  insufficiency  of  present 
knowledge  of  the  voice.  The  problem  of  the 
correct  management  of  the  vocal  organs  has 
not  been  finally  and  definitely  solved.  Voice  Cul- 
ture has  not  been  reduced  to  an  exact  science. 
Vocal  teachers  -are  not  in  possession  of  an  in- 
fallible method  of  training  voices.  Students  of 
singing  find  great  difficulty  in  learning  how  to  use 
their  voices.  Voice  Culture  is  generally  recog- 
nized as  entitled  to  a  position  among  the  exact 
sciences ;  but  something  remains  to  be  done  before 
it  can  assume  that  position. 

There  must  be  some  definite  reason  for  the 
failure  of  theoretical  investigation  to  produce  a 
satisfactory  Science  of  Voice  Culture.  This  can- 
not be  due  to  any  present  lack  of  understanding 
of  the  vocal  mechanism  on  the  part  of  scientific 
students  of  the  subject.  The  anatomy  and 
physiology  of  the  vocal  organs  have  been  ex- 
haustively studied  by  a  vast  number  of  highly 
trained  experts.  So  far  as  the  muscular  opera- 
tions of  tone-production  are  concerned,  and  the 
laws  of  acoustics  bearing  on  the  vocal  action,  no 
new  discovery  can  well  be  expected.  But  in  this 
very  fact,  the  exhaustive  attention  paid  to  the 


PEEFACE  ix 

meclianical  operations  of  the  voice,  is  seen  the 
incompleteness  of  Vocal  Science.  Attention  has 
been  turned  exclusively  to  the  mechanical  features 
of  tone-production,  and  in  consequence  many 
important  facts  bearing  on  the  voice  have  been 
overlooked. 

In  spite  of  the  general  acceptance  of  the  doc- 
trines of  Vocal  Science,  tone-production  has  not 
really  been  studied  from  the  purely  scientific 
standpoint.  The  use  of  the  word  *^ science''  pre- 
supposes the  careful  observation  and  study  of  all 
facts  and  phenomena  bearing  in  any  way  on  the 
subject  investigated.  Viewed  in  this  light,  the 
scientific  study  of  the  voice  is  at  once  seen  to  be 
incomplete.  True,  the  use  of  the  voice  is  a 
muscular  operation,  and  a  knowledge  of  the  mus- 
cular structure  of  the  vocal  organs  is  necessary 
to  an  understanding  of  the  voice.  But  this  knowl- 
edge alone  is  not  sufficient.  Like  every  other 
voluntary  muscular  operation,  tone-production  is 
subject  to  the  psychological  laws  of  control  and 
guidance.  Psychology  is  therefore  of  equal  im- 
portance with  anatomy  and  acoustics  as  an  ele- 
ment of  Vocal  Science. 

There  is  also  another  line  along  which  all  pre- 


X  PEEFACE 

vious  investigation  of  the  voice  is  singularly 
incomplete.  An  immense  fund  of  information 
about  the  vocal  action  is  obtained  by  attentive 
listening  to  voices,  and  in  no  other  way.  Yet  this 
important  element  in  Vocal  Science  is  almost  com- 
pletely neglected. 

In  order  to  arrive  at  an  assured  basis  for  the 
art  of  Voice  Culture,  it  is  necessary  in  the  first 
place  to  apply  the  strictest  rules  of  scientific  inves- 
tigation to  the  study  of  the  voice.  A  definite  plan 
must  be  adopted,  to  include  every  available  source 
of  information.  First,  the  insight  into  the  opera- 
tions of  the  voice,  obtained  by  listening  to  voices, 
must  be  reviewed  and  analyzed.  Second,  the 
sciences  of  anatomy,  mechanics,  acoustics,  and 
psychology  must  each  contribute  its  share  to  the 
general  fund  of  information.  Third,  from  all  the 
facts  thus  brought  together  the  general  laws  of 
vocal  control  and  management  must  be  deduced. 

Before  undertaking  this  exhaustive  analysis  of 
the  vocal  action  it  is  advisable  to  review  in  detail 
every  method  of  instruction  in  singing  now  in 
vogue.  This  may  seem  a  very  difficult  task.  To 
the  casual  observer  conditions  in  the  vocal  world 
appear  truly  chaotic.    Almost  every  prominent 


PEEFACE  xi 

teacher  believes  himself  to  possess  a  method 
peculiarly  his  own;  it  would  not  be  easy  to  find 
two  masters  who  agree  on  every  point,  practical 
as  well  as  theoretical.  But  this  confusion  of 
methods  is  only  on  the  surface.  All  teachers 
draw  the  materials  of  their  methods  from  the  same 
sources.  An  outline  of  the  history  of  Voice  Cul- 
ture, including  the  rise  of  the  old  Italian  school 
and  the  development  of  Vocal  Science,  will  render 
the  present  situation  in  the  vocal  profession  suf- 
ficiently clear. 

Part  I  of  this  work  contains  a  review  of  modern 
methods.  In  Part  II  a  critical  analysis  is  offered 
of  certain  theories  of  the  vocal  action  which 
receive  much  attention  in  practical  instruction. 
Several  of  the  accepted  doctrines  of  Vocal  Science, 
notably  those  of  breath-control,  chest  and  nasal 
resonance,  and  forward  placing  of  the  tone,  are 
found  on  examination  to  contain  serious  fallacies. 
More  important  even  than  the  specific  errors 
involved  in  these  doctrines,  the  basic  principle  of 
modern  Voice  Culture  is  also  found  to  be  false. 
All  methods  are  based  on  the  theory  that  the  voice 
requires  to  be  directly  and  consciously  managed 
in  the  performance  of  its  muscular  operations. 


xii  PEEFACE 

When  tested  by  the  psychological  laws  of  muscular 
guidance,  this  theory  of  mechanical  tone-produc- 
tion is  found  to  be  a  complete  error. 

Part  III  contains  a  summary  of  all  present 
knowledge  of  the  voice.  First,  the  insight  into 
the  singer's  vocal  operations  is  considered,  which 
the  hearer  obtains  by  attentive  listening  to  the 
tones  produced.  This  empirical  knowledge,  as  it 
is  generally  called,  indicates  a  state  of  unneces- 
sary throat  tension  as  the  cause,  or  at  any  rate 
the  accompaniment,  of  every  faulty  tone.  Further, 
an  outline  is  given  of  all  scientific  knowledge  of 
the  voice.  The  anatomy  of  the  vocal  organs,  and 
the  acoustic  and  mechanical  principles  of  the 
vocal  action,  are  briefly  described.  Finally,  the 
psychological  laws  of  tone-production  are  con- 
sidered. It  is  seen  that  under  normal  conditions 
the  voice  instinctively  obeys  the  commands  of  the 
ear. 

In  Part  IV  the  information  about  the  vocal 
action  obtained  from  thQ  two  sources  is  combined, 
— the  scientific  knowledge  of  mechanical  processes, 
and  the  empirical  knowledge  derived  from  atten- 
tive listening  to  voices.  Throat  stiffness  is  then 
seen  to  be  the  one  influence  which  can  interfere 


PEEFACE  xiii 

with  the  instinctively  correct  action  of  the  voice. 
The  most  important  cause  of  throat  stiffness  is 
fomid  in  the  attempt  consciously  to  manage  the 
mechanical  operations  of  the  voice.  In  place  of 
the  erroneous  principles  of  mechanical  instruc- 
tion, imitation  is  seen  to  be  the  rational  founda- 
tion of  a  method  of  Voice  Culture.  The  mystery 
surrounding  the  old  Italian  method  is  dispelled 
so  soon  as  the  possibility  is  recognized  of  teaching 
singing  by  imitation.  Practical  rules  are  outlined 
for  imparting  and  acquiring  the  correct  use  of  the 
voice,  through  the  guidance  of  the  sense  of  hear- 
ing. The  singer's  education  is  considered  in  its 
broadest  sense,  and  training  in  tone-production  is 
assigned  to  its  proper  place  in  the  complex  scheme 
of  Voice  Culture. 

During  the  past  twenty  years  the  author  has 
found  opportunity  to  hear  most  of  the  famous 
singers  who  have  visited  America,  as  well  as  a 
host  of  artists  of  somewhat  lesser  fame.  In  his 
early  student  days  the  conviction  grew  that  the 
voice  cannot  reach  its  fullest  development  when 
mechanically  used.  Siegfried  does  not  forge  his 
sword,  and  at  the  same  time  think  of  his  dia- 
phragm or  soft  palate.     Lucia  cannot  attend  to 


XIV  PREFACE 

the  movements  of  her  arytenoid  cartilages  while 
pouring  out  the  trills  and  runs  of  her  Mad  Scene. 
A  study  of  the  theoretical  works  on  Vocal  Science, 
dealing  always  with  mechanical  action  and  never 
with  tone,  served  only  to  strengthen  this  convic- 
tion. Finally  the  laws  of  physiological  psychol- 
ogy were  found  to  confirm  this  early  belief. 

Every  obtainable  work  on  Voice  Culture  has 
been  included  in  the  author's  reading.  No  desire 
must  be  understood  to  make  a  display  of  the 
results  of  this  study.  One  citation  from  a  recog- 
nized authority,  or  in  some  cases  two  or  three,  is 
held  sufficient  to  verify  each  statement  regarding 
the  accepted  doctrines  of  Vocal  Science.  As  for 
the  practical  features  of  modern  methods,  the 
facts  alleged  cannot  in  every  case  be  substantiated 
by  references  to  published  works.  It  is,  however, 
believed  that  the  reader's  acquaintance  with  the 
subject  will  bear  out  the  author's  statements. 

This  work  is  of  necessity  academic  in  conception 
and  in  substance.  Its  only  purpose  is  to  demon- 
strate the  falsity  of  the  idea  of  mechanical  vocal 
management,  and  to  prove  the  scientific  soundness 
of  instruction  by  imitation.  There  is  no  possi- 
bility of  a  practical  manual  of  instruction  in  sing- 


PKEFACE  XV 

ing  being  accepted,  based  on  tbe  training  of  the 
ear  and  the  musical  education  of  the  singer,  until 
the  vocal  world  has  been  convinced  of  the  error 
of  the  mechanical  idea.  When  that  has  been 
accomplished  this  work  will  have  served  its  pur- 
pose. All  of  the  controversial  materials,  together 
with  much  of  the  theoretical  subject  matter,  will 
then  be  superfluous.  A  concise  practical  treatise 
can  then  be  offered,  containing  all  that  the  vocal 
teacher  and  the  student  of  singing  need  to  know 
about  the  training  and  management  of  the  voice. 

It  is  in  great  measure  due  to  the  cooperation  of 
my  dear  friend,  Charles  Leonard-Stuart,  that  my 
theory  of  voice  production  is  brought  into  literary 
form,  and  presented  in  this  book.  To  his  thorough 
musicianship,  his  skill  and  experience  as  a  writer 
of  English,  and  especially  to  his  mastery  of  the 
bookman's  art,  I  am  deeply  indebted.  True  as 
I  know  Leonard-Stuart's  love  to  be  for  the  art  of 
pure  singing,  I  yet  prefer  to  ascribe  his  unselfish 
interest  in  this  work  to  his  friendship  for  the 
author. 


CONTENTS 

PART  I 

Modern  Methods  of  Instruction  in  Singing 

PAQH 

CHAPTER  I 
Tone-Production  and  Voice  Culture 3 

CHAPTER  II 
Breathing  and  Breath-Control 20 

CHAPTER  III 
Registers  and  Laryngeal  Action 34 

CHAPTER  IV 
Resonance    54 

CHAPTER  V 
Empirical  Materials  of  Modern  Methods 67 

CHAPTER  VI 
A  General  View  of  Modern  Voice  Culture 92 

PART  II 

A  CRITICAL  Analysis  of  Modern  Methods 

CHAPTER  I 
Mechanical  Vocal  Management  as  the  Basis  of  Voice  Culture.   109 

CHAPTER  II 
The  Fallacy  of  the  Doctrine  of  Breath-Control 117 

CHAPTER  III 
The  Fallacies  of   Forward  Emission,   Chest  Resonance,   and 

Nasal  Resonance    125 

xvii 


xviii  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  IV  PAGE 

The  Futility  of  the  Materials  of  Modern  Methods 130 

CHAPTER  V 
The  Error  of  the  Theory  of  Mechanical  Vocal  Management . .  135 

PART  III 
The  Basis  op  a  Real  Science  of  Voice 

CHAPTER  I 
The  Means  of  Empirical  Observation  of  the  Voice 151 

CHAPTER  II 
Sympathetic  Sensations  of  Vocal  Tone 162 

CHAPTER  III 
Empirical  Knowledge  of  the  Voice 176 

CHAPTER  IV 
The  Empirical  Precepts  of  the  Old  Italian  School 186 

CHAPTER  V 
Empirical  Knowledge  in  Modern  Voice  Culture 198 

CHAPTER  VI 
Scientific  Knowledge  of  the  Voice 210 

PART  IV 
Vocal  Science  and  Practical  Voice  Culttjue 

CHAPTER  I 
The  Correct  Vocal  Action 237 

CHAPTER  II 
"^l;e  Causes  of  Throat  Stiffness  and  of  Incorrect  Vocal  Action  247 

CHAPTER  in 
Throat  Stiffness  and  Incorrect  Singing 262 

CHAPTER  IV 
The  True  Meaning  of  Vocal  Training 275 


CONTENTS  xix 

CHAPTER  V  PAGE 

Imitation  the  Rational  Basis  of  Voice  Culture 291 

CHAPTER  VI 
The  Old  Italian  Method   304 

CHAPTER  VII 
The  Disappearance  of  the  Old  Italian  Method  and  the  De- 
velopment of  Mechanical  Instruction 320 

CHAPTER  VIII 
The  Materials  of  Rational  Instruction  in  Singing 341 

CHAPTER  IX 
Outlines  of  a  Practical  Method  of  Voice  Culture 361 

Bibliography    369 


CHAPTER  I 

TONE-PEODUCTION    AND    VOICE    CULTUEE 

In  no  other  form  of  expression  do  art  and 
nature  seem  so  closely  identified  as  in  the  art  of 
singing.  A  perfect  voice  speaks  so  directly  to  the 
soul  of  the  hearer  that  all  appearance  of  artfully 
prepared  effect  is  absent.  Every  tone  sung  by  a 
consummate  vocal  artist  seems  to  be  poured  forth 
freely  and  spontaneously.  There  is  no  evidence 
of  calculation,  of  carefully  directed  effort,  of 
attention  to  the  workings  of  the  voice,  in  the  tones 
of  a  perfect  singer.  Yet  if  the  accepted  idea  of 
Voice  Culture  is  correct,  this  semblance  of  spon- 
taneity in  the  use  of  the  voice  can  result  only  from 
careful  and  incessant  attention  to  mechanical 
rules.  That  the  voice  must  be  managed  or  handled 
in  some  way  neither  spontaneous  nor  instinctive, 
is  the  settled  conviction  of  almost  every  authority 
on  the  subject.  All  authorities  believe  also  that 
this  manner  of  handling  the  voice  must  be  ac- 
quired by  every  student  of  singing,  in  the 
course  of  carefully  directed  study. 

3 


4  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

This  training  in  the  use  of  the  voice  is  the 
most  important  feature  of  education  in  sing- 
ing. Voice  Culture  embraces  a  peculiar  and 
distinct  problem,  that  of  the  correct  manage- 
ment of  the  vocal  organs.  Vocal  training  has 
indeed  come  to  be  considered  synonymous  with 
training  in  the  correct  use  of  the  voice.  Every 
method  of  instruction  in  singing  must  contain 
as  its  most  important  element  some  means  for 
dealing  with  the  problem  of  tone-production. 

No  complete  and  satisfactory  solution  of  this 
problem  has  ever  been  found.  Of  this  fact 
every  one  acquainted  with  the  practical  side  of 
Voice  Culture  must  be  well  aware.  As  the 
present  work  is  designed  solely  to  suggest  a 
new  maimer  of  dealing  with  this  question,  it 
is  advisable  to  define  precisely  what  is  meant 
by  the  problem  of  tone-production. 

In  theory  the  question  may  be  stated  very 
simply.  It  is  generally  believed  throughout 
the  vocal  profession  that  the  voice  has  one 
correct  mode  of  action,  different  from  a  wide 
variety  of  incorrect  actions  of  which  it  is  cap- 
able;— that  this  mode  of  action,  though  or- 
dained by  Nature,  is  not  in  the  usual  sense  natural 


TONE-PEODUCTION   AND   VOICE   CULTUEE  5 

or  instinctive ; — that  the  correct  vocal  action  must 
be  acquired,  through  a  definite  understanding  and 
conscious  management  of  the  muscular  movements 
involved.  The  theoretical  problem  therefore  is: 
What  is  the  correct  vocal  action,  and  how  can  it 
be  acquired? 

On  the  practical  side,  the  nature  of  the  problem 
is  by  no  means  so  simple.  In  actual  instruction 
in  singing,  the  subject  of  vocal  management  can- 
not readily  be  dissociated  from  the  wide  range  of 
other  topics  comprised  in  the  singer's  education. 
In  much  that  pertains  to  the  art  of  music,  the 
singer's  training  must  include  the  same  subjects 
that  form  the  training  of  every  musician.  In 
addition  to  this  general  musical  training,  about  the 
same  for  all  students  of  music,  each  student  must 
acquire  technical  command  of  the  chosen  instru- 
ment. This  is  necessarily  acquired  by  practice 
on  the  instrument,  whether  it  be  piano,  violin, 
oboe,  or  whatever  else.  In  the  same  way,  vocal 
technique  is  acquired  by  practice  in  actual  singing. 
Practice  makes  perfect,  with  the  voice  as  with 
everything  else. 

But  the  voice  is  not  invariably  subject  to  the 
law  that  practice  makes  perfect.    In   this   im- 


6  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

portant  respect  the  singer's  education  presents  a 
problem  not  encountered  by  the  student  of  any 
instrument.  Given  the  necessary  talents,  indus- 
try, and  opportunities  for  study,  the  student  of 
the  violin  may  count  with  certainty  on  acquiring 
the  mastery  of  this  instrument.  But  for  the 
vocal  student  this  is  not  necessarily  true.  There 
are  many  cases  in  which  practice  in  singing  does 
not  bring  about  technical  perfection.  The  mere 
singing  of  technical  exercises  is  not  enough;  it  is 
of  vital  importance  that  the  exercises  be  sung  in 
some  particular  manner.  There  is  one  certain 
way  in  which  the  voice  must  be  handled  during  the 
practice  of  singing.  If  the  vocal  organs  are  exer- 
cised in  this  particular  manner,  the  voice  will 
improve  steadily  as  the  result  of  practice.  This 
progress  will  continue  until  perfect  technical  com- 
mand of  the  voice  is  acquired.  But  if  the  vocal 
student  fails  to  hit  upon  this  particular  way  of 
handling  the  voice  in  practice  the  voice  will 
improve  little,  or  not  at  all.  In  such  a  case  perfect 
vocal  technique  will  never  be  acquired,  no  matter 
how  many  years  the  practice  may  continue. 

What  is  this  peculiar  way  in  which  the  voice 
must  be  handled  during  the  practice  of  singing? 


TONE-PEODUCTION    AND   VOICE    CULTURE  7 

This  is  the  practical  problem  of  tone-production, 
as  it  confronts  the  student  of  singing. 

It  is  important  that  the  exact  bearing  of  the 
problem  be  clearly  understood.  It  is  purely  a 
feature  of  education  in  singing,  and  concerns  only 
teachers  and  students  of  the  art.  Properly  speak- 
ing, the  finished  singer  should  leave  the  teacher 
and  start  on  the  artistic  career,  equipped  with  a 
voice  under  perfect  control.  There  should  be  no 
problem  of  tone-production  for  the  trained  singer, 
no  thought  or  worry  about  the  vocal  action.  True, 
many  authorities  on  the  voice  maintain  that  the 
artist  must,  in  all  singing,  consciously  and  intelli- 
gently guide  the  operations  of  the  vocal  organs. 
But  even  if  this  be  the  case  the  fact  remains  that 
this  ability  to  manage  the  voice  must  be  acquired 
during  student  days.  In  seeking  a  solution  of  the 
problem,  that  period  in  the  prospective  singer's 
training  must  be  considered  during  which  the 
proper  use  of  the  voice  is  learned. 

It  may  be  taken  for  granted  that  teachers  of 
singing  have  always  been  aware  of  the  existence 
of  the  problem  of  tone-production,  and  have 
always  instructed  their  pupils  in  the  correct 
management  of  the  voice.    Yet  it  is  only  within 


8  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

the  past  hundred  and  fifty  years  that  vocal  man- 
agement has  been  the  subject  of  special  study. 
A  brief  review  of  the  history  of  Voice  Culture  will 
serve  to  bring  this  fact  out  clearly. 

To  begin  with,  the  present  art  of  singing  is  of 
comparatively  recent  origin.  It  is  indeed  prob- 
able that  man  had  been  using  the  voice  in  some- 
thing akin  to  song  for  thousands  of  years  before 
the  dawn  of  history.  Song  of  some  kind  has 
always  played  an  important  part  in  human  life, 
savage  as  well  as  civilized.  To  express  our  emo- 
tions and  feelings  by  means  of  the  voice  is  one  of 
our  most  deep-seated  instincts.  For  this  use  of 
the  voice  to  take  on  the  character  of  melody,  as 
distinguished  from  ordinary  speech,  is  also  purely 
instinctive.  Singing  was  one  of  the  most  zealously 
cultivated  arts  in  early  Egypt,  in  ancient  Israel, 
and  in  classic  Greece  and  Eome.  Throughout  all 
the  centuries  of  European  history  singing  has 
always  had  its  recognized  place,  both  in  the 
services  of  the  various  churches  and  in  the  daily 
life  of  the  people. 

But  solo  singing,  as  we  know  it  to-day,  is  a 
comparatively  modern  art.  Not  until  the  closing 
decades  of  the  sixteenth  century  did  the  art  of  solo 


TONE-PEODUCTION   AND    VOICE    CULTURE  9 

singing  receive  much  attention,  and  it  is  to  that 
period  we  must  look  for  the  beginnings  of  Voice 
Culture.  It  is  true  that  the  voice  was  cultivated, 
both  for  speech  and  song,  among  the  Greeks  and 
Romans.  Gordon  Holmes,  in  his  Treatise  on 
Vocal  Physiology  and  Hygiene  (London,  1879), 
gives  an  interesting  account  of  these  ancient  sys- 
tems of  Voice  Culture.  But  practically  nothing 
has  come  down  to  us  about  the  means  then  used 
for  training  the  voice.  Even  if  any  defined 
methods  were  developed,  it  is  absolutely  certain 
that  these  had  no  influence  on  the  modern  art  of 
Voice  Culture. 

With  the  birth  of  Italian  opera,  in  1600,  a  new 
art  of  singing  also  came  into  existence.  The  two 
arts,  opera  and  singing,  developed  side  by  side, 
each  dependent  on  the  other.  And  most  important 
to  the  present  inquiry,  the  art  or  science  of  train- 
ing voices  also  came  into  being.  In  Le  Revolu- 
zioni  del  Teatro  Musicale  Italiano  (Venice,  1785), 
Arteaga  says  of  the  development  of  opera: 
**But  nothing  contributed  so  much  to  clarify 
Italian  music  at  that  time  as  the  excellence  and  the 
abundance  of  the  singers."  A  race  of  singing 
masters  seems  almost  to  have  sprung  up  in  Italy» 


10  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

These  illustrious  masters  taught  the  singers  to 
produce  effects  with  their  voices  such  as  had  never 
been  heard  of  before.  From  1600  to  1750  the 
progress  of  the  art  of  singing  was  uninterrupted. 
Each  great  teacher  carried  the  art  a  little  further, 
discovering  new  beauties  and  powers  in  the  voice, 
and  finding  means  to  impart  his  new  knowledge  to 
his  pupils. 

This  race  of  teachers  is  known  to-day  as  the 
Old  Italian  School,  and  their  system  of  instruction 
is  called  the  Old  Italian  Method.  Just  what  tliis 
method  consisted  of  is  a  much-discussed  question. 
Whatever  its  system  of  instruction,  the  old  Italian 
school  seems  to  have  suffered  a  gradual  decline. 
In  1800  it  was  distinctly  on  the  wane;  it  was 
entirely  superseded,  during  the  years  from  1840 
to  1865,  by  the  modem  scientific  methods. 

Considered  as  a  practical  system  of  Voice  Cul- 
ture, the  old  Italian  method  is  a  highly  mysterious 
subject.  Little  is  now  known  about  the  means 
used  for  training  students  of  singing  in  the  correct 
use  of  the  voice.  This  much  is  fairly  certain :  the 
old  masters  paid  little  or  no  attention  to  what  are 
now  considered  scientific  principles.  They  taught 
in  what  modern  vocal  theorists  consider  a  rather 


TONE-PEODUCTION    AND   VOICE    CULTURE  11 

haphazard  fashion.  The  term  ^^empiricar'  is 
often  applied  to  their  method,  and  to  the  knowl- 
edge of  the  voice  on  which  it  was  based.^  But  as 
to  what  the  old  masters  actually  knew  about  the 
voice,  and  just  how  they  taught  their  pupils  to 
sing,  on  these  points  the  modern  world  is  in  almost 
complete  ignorance.  Many  attempts  have  been 
made  in  recent  years  to  reconstruct  the  old  Italian 
method  in  the  light  of  modern  scientific  knowledge 
of  the  voice.  But  no  such  analysis  of  the  empirical 
system  has  ever  been  convincing. 

How  the  practical  method  of  the  old  masters 
came  to  be  forgotten  is  perhaps  the  most  mysteri- 
ous feature  of  this  puzzling  system.  There  has 
been  a  lineal  succession  of  teachers  of  singing, 
from  the  earlier  decades  of  the  eighteenth  century 
down  to  the  present.  Even  to-day  it  is  almost  un- 
heard of  that  any  one  should  presume  to  call  him- 
self a  teacher  of  singing  without  having  studied 
with  at  least  one  recognized  master.  Each  master 
of  the  old  school  imparted  Iiis  knowledge  and  his 
practical  method  to  his  pupils.    Those  of  his  pupils 

*  *  *  The  old  Italian  method  of  instruction,  to  which  vocal  music 
owed  its  high  condition,  was  purely  empirical. '*  (Emma  Seiler, 
The  Voice  in  Singing.    Phila.,  1886.) 


12  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

who  in  their  turn  became  teachers  passed  the 
method  on  to  their  students,  and  so  on,  in  many 
imbroken  successions.  Yet,  for  some  mysterious 
reason,  the  substance  of  the  old  method  was  lost 
in  transmission. 

What  little  is  now  known  about  the  old  method 
is  derived  from  two  sources,  the  written  record 
and  tradition.  To  write  books  in  explanation  of 
their  system  of  instruction  does  not  seem  to  have 
occurred  to  the  earliest  exponents  of  the  art  of 
Voice  Culture.  The  first  published  work  on  the 
subject  was  that  of  Pietro  Francesco  Tosi,  Osser- 
vazione  sopra  il  Canto  figuratOy  brought  out  in 
Bologna  in  1728.  This  was  translated  into  Eng- 
lish by  M.  Galliard,  and  published  in  London  in 
1742 ;  a  German  translation  by  J.  F.  Agricola  was 
issued  in  1757.  The  present  work  will  call  for 
several  citations  from  Tosi,  all  taken  from  the 
English  edition.  Only  one  other  prominent 
teacher  of  the  old  school,  G.  B.  Mancini,  has  left 
an  apparently  complete  record  of  his  method. 
His  Riflessioni  pratiche  sul  Canto  figurato  was 
published  in  Milan  in  1776.  Mancini 's  book  has 
never  been  translated  into  English.    Eeference 


TONE-PKODUCTION    AND   VOICE    CULTUEE  13 

will  therefore  be  made  to  the  third  Italian  edition, 
brought  out  in  Milan,  1777. 

To  si  and  Mancini  undoubtedly  intended  to  give 
complete  accounts  of  the  methods  of  instruction 
in  singing  in  vogue  in  their  day.  But  modern 
vocal  theorists  generally  believe  that  the  most 
important  materials  of  instruction  were  for  some 
reason  not  mentioned.  Three  registers  are  men- 
tioned by  Tosi,  while  Mancini  speaks  of  only  two. 
Both  touch  on  the  necessity  of  equalizing  the 
registers,  but  give  no  specific  directions  for  this 
purpose.  About  all  these  early  writers  have  left 
us,  in  the  opinion  of  most  modern  students  of 
their  works,  is  the  outline  of  an  elaborate  system 
of  vocal  ornaments  and  embellishments. 

On  the  side  of  tradition  a  slightly  more  coherent 
set  of  rules  has  come  down  to  us  from  the  old 
masters.  These  are  generally  known  as  the 
*  traditional  precepts. '^  Just  when  the  precepts 
were  first  formulated  it  is  impossibly  to  say. 
Tosi  and  Mancini  d )  not  mention  them.  Perhaps 
they  were  held  by  the  old  masters  as  a  sort  of 
esoteric  mystery;  this  idea  is  occasionally  put 
forward.  At  any  rate,  by  the  time  the  traditional 
precepts  were  given  to  the  world  in  published 


14  THE   PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

works  on  the  voice,  their  valuable  meaning  had 
been  completely  lost. 

Gathered  from  all  available  sources,  the  tradi- 
tional precepts  are  as  follows : 

**Sing  on  the  breath.'' 

''Open  the  throat." 

''Sing  the  tone  forward,"  or  "at  the  lips." 

"Support  the  tone." 

To  the  layman  these  precepts  are  so  vague  as 
to  be  almost  unintelligible.  But  modern  vocal 
teachers  are  convinced  that  the  precepts  sum  up 
the  most  important  means  used  by  the  old  masters 
for  imparting  the  correct  vocal  action.  An  inter- 
pretation of  the  precepts  in  terms  intelligible  to 
the  modern  student  would  therefore  be  extremely 
valuable.  Many  scientific  investigators  of  the 
voice  have  sought  earnestly  to  discover  the  sense 
in  which  the  precepts  were  applied  by  the  old 
masters.  These  explanations  of  the  traditional 
precept ^ccupy  a  very  important  position  in  most 
modern  methods  of  instruction. 

There  can  be  no  question  that  the  old  masters 
were  highly  successful  teachers  of  singing.  Even 
leaving  out  of  consideration  the  vocal  achieve- 
ments of  the  castrati,  the  singers  of  Tosi's  day 


TONE-PRODUCTION   AND   VOICE    CULTURE  15 

must  have  been  able  to  perform  music  of  the  florid 
style  in  a  masterly  fashion.  This  is  plainly  seen 
from  a  study  of  the  scores  of  the  operas  popular 
at  that  time.  Empirical  methods  of  instruction 
seem  to  have  sufficed  for  the  earlier  masters.  Not 
until  the  old  method  had  been  in  existence  for 
nearly  one  hundred  and  fifty  years  does  an  at- 
tempt seem  to  have  been  made  to  study  the  voice 
scientifically.  In  1741  a  famous  French  physician, 
Ferrein,  published  a  treatise  on  the  vocal  organs. 
This  was  the  first  scientific  work  to  influence  the 
practices  of  vocal  teachers. 

For  many  years  after  the  publication  of  Fer- 
rein's  treatise,  the  scientific  study  of  the  voice 
attracted  very  little  attention  from  the  singing 
masters.  Fully  sixty  years  elapsed  before  any 
serious  attempt  was  made  to  base  a  method  of 
instruction  on  scientific  principles.  Even  then  the 
idea  of  scientific  instruction  in  singing  gained 
ground  very  slowly.  Practical  teachers  at  first 
paid  but  little  attention  to  the  subject.  Interest 
in  the  mechanics  of  voice  production  was  confined 
almost  entirely  to  the  scientists. 

In  the  early  decades  of  the  nineteenth  century 
the  mechanical  features  of  voice  production  seem 


16  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

to  have  appealed  to  a  constantly  wider  circle  of 
scientists.  Lickovius  (1814),  Malgaine  (1831), 
Bennati  (1830),  Bell  (1832),  Savart  (1825), 
brought  out  works  on  the  subject.  It  remained, 
however,  for  a  vocal  teacher,  Garcia,  to  conceive 
the  idea  of  basing  practical  instruction  on  scien- 
tific knowledge. 

Manuel  Garcia  (1805-1906)  may  justly  be  re- 
garded as  the  founder  of  Vocal  Science.  His 
father,  Manuel  del  Popolo  Viscenti,  was  famous 
as  singer,  impresario,  and  teacher.  From  him 
Garcia  inherited  the  old  method,  it  is  safe  to 
assume,  in  its  entirety.  But  for  Garcia 's  re- 
markable mind  the  empirical  methods  of  the  old 
school  were  unsatisfactory.  He  desired  definite 
knowledge  of  the  voice.  A  clear  idea  seems  to 
have  been  in  his  mind  that,  with  full  understand- 
ing of  the  vocal  mechanism  and  of  its  correct  mode 
of  action,  voices  would  be  more  readily  and  surely 
trained.  How  strongly  this  idea  had  possession 
of  Garcia  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  he  began  the 
study  of  the  vocal  action  in  1832,  and  that  he 
invented  the  laryngoscope  only  in  1855. 

It  must  not  be  understood  that  Garcia  was  the 
first  teacher  to  attempt  to  formulate  a  systematic 


TONE-PEODUCTION   AND   VOICE    CULTUEE  17 

scheme  of  instruction  in  singing.  In  the  works  of 
Mannstein  (1834)  and  of  Marx  (1823)  an  ambitious 
forward  movement  on  the  part  of  many  prominent 
teachers  is  strongly  indicated.  But  Garcia  was 
the  first  teacher  to  apply  scientific  principles  in 
dealing  with  the  specific  problem  of  tone-pro- 
duction. He  conceived  the  idea  that  a  scientific 
knowledge  of  the  workings  of  the  vocal  organs 
might  be  made  the  basis  of  a  practical  system  or 
method  of  instruction  in  singing.  This  idea  of 
Garcia  has  been  the  basic  principle  of  all  practical 
methods,  ever  since  the  publication  of  the  results 
of  Ms  first  laryngoscopic  investigations  in  1855. 

Before  attempting  to  suggest  a  new  means  of 
dealing  with  the  problem  of  vocal  management,  it 
is  well  to  ascertain  how  this  problem  is  treated  in 
modern  methods  of  instruction.  It  would  not  be 
easy  to  overstate  the  importance  assigned  to  the 
matter  of  tone-production  in  all  modern  systems 
of  Voice  Culture.  The  scientific  study  of  the 
voice  has  dealt  exclusively  with  this  subject.  A 
new  science  has  resulted,  commonly  called  **  Vocal 
Science."  This  science  is  generally  accepted  as 
the  foundation  of  all  instruction  in  singing.     All 


18  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

modern  methods  are  to  some  extent  based  on 
Vocal  Science. 

To  arrive  at  an  understanding  of  modern 
methods,  the  two  directions  in  which  vocal  theorists 
have  approached  the  scientific  study  of  the  voice 
must  be  borne  in  mind:  First,  by  an  investiga- 
tion of  the  anatomy  of  the  vocal  organs,  and  of 
the  laws  of  acoustics  and  mechanics  in  accordance 
with  which  they  operate.  Second,  by  an  analysis 
of  the  traditional  precepts  of  the  old  Italian  school 
in  the  light  of  this  scientific  knowledge. 

As  the  present  work  demands  a  review  of 
modern  methods  from  the  practical  side  only,  it  is 
not  necessary  to  include  a  description  of  the  vocal 
organs.  It  will  be  sufficient  to  describe  briefly  the 
manner  in  which  scientific  investigators  of  the 
voice  treat  the  subject  of  the  vocal  organs. 

The  vocal  mechanism  consists  of  three  portions, 
//'  — the  breathing  apparatus,  the  larynx  with  its 
appendages,  and  the  resonance  cavities.  Vocal 
scientists  apply  their  efforts  to  finding  out  the 
correct  mode  of  action  of  each  portion  of  the 
mechanism,  and  to  formulating  rules  and  exercises 
by  which  these  correct  actions  can  be  acquired 
and  combined  for  the  production  of  perfect  tones. 


TONE-PEODUCTION    AND   VOICE    CULTUEE  19 

The  analysis  of  tlie  traditional  precepts  also  con- 
forms to  this  general  plan;  each  precept  is 
referred  to  that  portion  of  the  vocal  apparatus  to 
which  it  seems  best  to  apply.  The  outline  of  the 
principles  of  modern  methods  contained  in  the 
following  chapters  follows  this  general  scheme. 

It  must  be  understood  at  the  start  that  on  most 
of  the  doctrines  included  in  Vocal  Science  there 
is  no  unanimity  of  opinion  among  either  theorists 
or  teachers.  Far  from  this  being  the  case,  prac- 
tically all  the  principles  of  Vocal  Science  are  the 
subjects  of  controversy. 


CHAPTEE   II 

BEEATHING  AND  BEEATH-CONTBOL 

It  is  generally  considered  that,  as  the  breath  is 
the  foundation  of  singing,  the  manner  of  breath- 
ing is  of  vital  importance  to  the  singer.  This 
subject  has  therefore  received  a  vast  amount  of 
attention  from  vocal  scientists,  and  the  muscular 
actions  of  breathing  have  been  exhaustively 
studied. 

Several  sets  of  rules  for  inspiration  and  expira- 
tion are  put  forth  by  different  authorities.  But 
there  is  no  occasion  for  going  into  a  detailed  dis- 
cussion of  the  different  modes  of  breathing  advo- 
cated by  the  various  schools,  or  of  the  theoretical 
arguments  which  each  advances.  It  is  sufficient 
to  say  that  the  modes  of  breathing  most  in  vogue 
are  five  in  number, — deep  abdominal,  lateral  or 
costal,  fixed  high  chest,  clavicular,  and  diaphrag- 
matic-abdominal. However,  on  experimenting  with 
these  five  systems  of  breathing,  it  is  found  that 
the  number  may  be  reduced  to  two ;  of  these  the 

20 


BEEATHING  AND  BEEATH-CONTROL       21 

others  are  but  slight  modifications.  In  one  sys- 
tem of  inspiration  the  abdomen  is  protruded, 
while  the  upper  chest  is  held  firm,  the  greatest 
expansion  being  at  the  base  of  the  lungs.  In  the 
other  mode  of  taking  breath  the  abdomen  is 
slightly  drawn  in,  while  the  chest  is  expanded  in 
every  direction,  upward,  laterally,  forward,  and 
backward.  In  this  system  the  upper  chest  is  held 
in  a  fixed  and  high  position. 

Necessarily  the  manner  of  filling  the  lungs 
involves  the  manner  in  which  they  are  emptied. 
Opinions  are  practically  unanimous  as  to  the 
proper  position  of  the  singer  before  taking  breath, 
that  is,  at  the  end  of  an  expiration.  The  singer 
must  stand  erect,  the  weight  of  the  body  evenly 
supported  on  the  balls  of  both  feet,  with  the  whole 
body  in  a  condition  of  lithe  suppleness.  In  both 
systems  of  breathing  the  manner  of  expiration  is 
simply  a  return  to  this  position. 

A  wide  variety  of  breathing  exercises  are  in  use, 
but  these  do  not  require  detailed  description. 
Any  one  of  the  prescribed  systems  of  breathing 
can  easily  be  adopted,  and  the  student  of  singing 
seldom  encounters  any  difficulty  on  this  point. 
Still  most  teachers  attach  great  importance  to  the 


22  THE   PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

acquirement  of  the  correct  manner  of  breathing. 
Toneless  mechanical  exercises  are  generally  given, 
by  which  the  student  is  expected  to  master  the 
muscular  movements  before  applying  in  singing 
the  system  advocated  by  the  teacher.  These  exer- 
cises are  usually  combined  with  those  for  breath- 
control,  and  they  are  described  under  that  head. 

Breath-Control 

Very  early  in  the  development  of  Vocal  Science 
the  management  of  the  breath  began  to  receive 
attention.  Mannstein,^  writing  in  1834,  says: 
* '  The  air  in  expiration  must  stream  from  the  chest 
slowly  and  without  shock.  The  air  must  flow 
from  the  chest  with  the  tone."  In  a  footnote  he 
adds:  ''In  order  to  acquire  this  economy  of  the 
breath,  students  were  required  to  practise  daily, 
without  singing,  to  take  and  to  hold  back  the 
breath  as  long  as  possible."  Mannstein  does  not 
mention  the  muscular  action  involved  in  this 
exercise. 

This  subject  is  also  touched  upon  by  Garcia. 
In  the  first  edition  of  his  Ecole  de,  Garcia,  1847, 
Chap.  IV,  p.  14,  he  says:     ''The  mechanism  of 

^  Die  grosse  italieiiische  Gesangschule.     Dresden,  1834. 


BEEATHING  AND  BREATH-CONTROL       23 

expiration  consists  of  a  gentle  pressure  on  the 
lungs  charged  with  air,  operated  by  the  thorax 
and  the  diaphragm.  The  shock  of  the  chest,  the 
sudden  falling  of  the  ribs,  and  the  quick  relaxing 
of  the  diaphragm  cause  the  air  to  escape  instantly. 
...  If ,  while  the  lungs  are  filled  with  air,  the  ribs 
are  allowed  to  fall,  and  the  diaphragm  to  rise,  the 
lungs  instantly  give  up  the  inspired  air,  like  a 
pressed  sponge.  It  is  necessary  therefore  to 
allow  the  ribs  to  fall  and  the  diaphragm  to  relax 
only  so  much  as  is  required  to  sustain  the  tones." 
It  may  be  questioned  whether  Garcia  had  in  mind 
the  doctrine  of  breath-control  as  this  is  under- 
stood to-day.  Very  little  attention  was  paid,  at 
any  rate,  in  the  vocal  instruction  of  that  day,  to 
the  mechanical  actions  of  breath-control ;  the  great 
majority  of  teachers  probably  had  never  heard  of 
this  principle. 

As  a  definite  principle  of  Vocal  Science,  breath- 
control  was  first  formulated  by  Dr.  Mandl,  in  his 
Die  Gesundheitslehre  der  Stimme,  Brunswick, 
1876.  From  that  time  on,  this  doctrine  has  been 
very  generally  recognized  as  the  fundamental 
principle  of  correct  singing.  Practically  every 
scientific  writer  on  the  voice   since  then  states 


24  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

breath-control  as  one  of  the  basic  principles  of 
Vocal  Science.  The  most  influential  published 
work  in  popularizing  the  doctrine  of  breath-con- 
trol was  probably  the  book  written  jointly  by 
Lennox  Browne  and  Emil  Behnke,  Voice,  Song, 
and  Speech,  London,  1883. 

This  doctrine  is  of  so  much  importance  in  Vocal 
Science  and  in  modern  methods  of  instruction  as 
to  require  a  detailed  explanation.  The  theory  of 
breath-control  may  be  stated  as  follows  -} 

''In  ordinary  breathing  the  air  is  expelled  from 
the  lungs  quietly,  but  rapidly ;  at  no  point  of  the 
breathing  apparatus  does  the  expired  breath  meet 
with  resistance.  In  singing,  on  the  contrary,  the 
expiratory  pressure  is  much  more  powerful,  yet 
the  expiration  must  be  much  slower.  Further- 
more, all  the  expired  breath  must  be  converted 
into  tone,  and  the  singer  must  have  perfect  control 
over  the  strength  and  the  speed  of  the  expiration. 
This  requires  that  the  air  be  held  back  at  some 
point.     The  action  of  holding  back  the  breath  must 

^  This  statement  of  the  doctrine  of  breath-control  must  not  be 
construed  as  an  endorsement  of  the  theory  of  the  vocal  action 
embodied  in  this  doctrine.  On  the  contrary,  both  the  theory  of 
"opposed  action'*  breath-control  and  the  "breath-band"  theory 
are  held  to  be  utterly  erroneous.  For  a  further  discussion  of  this 
subject  see  Chapter  II  of  Part  II. 


BEEATHING  AND  BREATH-CONTROL       25 

not  be  performed  by  the  muscles  which  close  the 
glottis,  for  all  the  muscles  of  the  larynx  are  very 
small  and  weak  in  comparison  with  the  powerful 
muscles  of  expiration.  The  glottis-closing  mus- 
cles are  too  weak  to  oppose  their  action  to  the 
force  of  a  powerful  expiration.  If  the  vocal  cords 
are  called  upon  to  withstand  a  strong  breath 
pressure,  they  are  seriously  strained,  and  their 
proper  action  is  rendered  impossible.  In  the  same 
way,  if  the  throat  be  narrowed  at  any  point  above 
the  larynx,  so  as  to  present  a  passage  small 
enough  to  hold  back  a  powerful  expiration,  the 
entire  vocal  mechanism  is  strained  and  forced  out 
of  its  proper  adjustment.  The  singer  must  have 
perfect  control  of  the  breath,  and  at  the  same  time 
relieve  the  larynx  and  throat  of  all  pressure  and 
strain.  To  obtain  this  control  the  singer  must 
govern  the  expiration  by  means  of  the  muscles  of 
inspiration.  When  the  lungs  are  filled  the  in- 
spiratory muscles  are  not  to  be  relaxed  as  in 
ordinary  breathing,  but  are  to  be  held  on  tension 
throughout  the  action  of  expiration.  Whatever 
pressure  is  exerted  by  the  expiratory  muscles  must 
be  almost  counterbalanced  by  the  opposed  action 
of  the  muscles  of  inspiration.     The  more  powerful 


26  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

the  blast,  the  greater  must  be  the  exertion  by 
which  it  is  controlled.  In  this  way  the  singer 
may  have  perfect  control  both  of  the  speed  and  of 
the  strength  of  the  expiration/' 

The  exercises  for  acquiring  command  of  this 
**  opposed  action  breath-controP '  are  easily  under- 
stood ;  indeed,  they  will  readily  suggest  themselves 
to  one  who  has  grasped  their  purpose.  Most 
important  of  these  exercises  is  a  quick  inspiration, 
followed  by  a  slow  and  controlled  expiration. 
Exercises  for  breathing  and  breath-control  are 
usually  combined;  the  student  is  instructed  to 
take  breath  in  the  manner  advocated  by  the 
teacher,  and  then  to  control  the  expiration. 

Teachers  usually  require  their  pupils  to  obtain 
command  of  this  action  as  a  toneless  exercise 
before  permitting  them  to  apply  it  to  the  pro- 
duction of  tone.  Methods  vary  greatly  as  to  the 
length  of  time  devoted  to  toneless  drills  in  breath- 
ing and  breath-control.  Many  teachers  demand 
that  students  practise  these  exercises  daily 
throughout  the  entire  course  of  study,  and  even 
recommend  that  this  practice  be  continued 
throughout  the  singer's  active  life. 


BEEATHING  AND  BBEATH-CONTROL       27 

Simple  as  these  exercises  are  in  theory,  they 
demand  very  arduous  practice.  Control  of  the 
breath  by  ''opposed  action"  is  hard  and  tiring 
muscular  work,  as  the  reader  may  easily  convince 
himself  by  practising  the  above  described  exercise 
for  a  few  minutes. 

No  special  rules  are  needed  for  applying  this 
mode  of  breathing  to  the  production  of  tone. 
Theoretical  writers  generally  do  not  claim  that 
the  control  of  the  breath  brings  about  the  correct 
laryngeal  action,  but  merely  that  it  permits  this 
action  by  noninterference.  Several  authorities 
however,  notably  Shakespeare,  maintain  that  in 
effect  this  system  of  breath-control  embodies  the 
old  precept,  ''Sing  on  the  breath."  (Wm.  Shakes- 
peare, The  Art  of  Singing,  London,  1898,  p.  24.) 
Other  theorists  hold  that  the  empirical  precept, 
"Support  the  tone,"  refers  to  this  manner  of  con- 
trolled expiration.  (G.  B.  Lamperti,  The  Tech- 
nics of  Bel  Canto,  Trans,  by  Dr.  Th.  Baker,  N.  Y., 
1905,  p.  9.) 

The  '^ Breath-hand' '  System 

While  most  authorities  on  the  voice  advocate 
the  system  of  breath-control  by  "opposed  mus- 


28  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

cular  action, ' '  there  are  a  number  of  masters  who 
teach  an  entirely  different  system.  This  is  usually 
known  as  the  "Breath-band,"  or  ''Ventricular" 
breath-control.  Charles  Lunn,  in  The  Philosophy 
of  the  Voice,  1878,  was  the  first  to  propound 
the  theory  that  the  breath  may  be  controlled  by 
the  false  vocal  cords.  There  is  reason  to  believe 
that  this  idea  was  also  worked  out  independently 
by  Orlando  Steed  (*'0n  Beauty  of  Touch  and 
Tone,"  Proceedings  of  the  Musical  Assn,,  1879- 
80,  p.  47).  As  a  number  of  prominent  teachers 
base  their  entire  methods  on  this  theory,  it  is 
worthy  of  careful  attention.  The  ''breath-band" 
theory  may  be  stated  as  follows : 

"When  the  lungs  are  filled  by  a  deep  inspira- 
tion and  the  breath  is  held,  the  glottis  is  of  neces- 
sity closed  so  tightly  that  no  air  can  escape.  In 
this  condition  the  expiratory  muscles  may  be  very 
violently  contracted,  and  still  no  air  will  escape; 
indeed,  the  greater  the  strength  exerted  the  tighter 
is  the  closure  of  the  glottis.  Obviously,  this 
closure  of  the  glottis  cannot  be  effected  by  the 
contraction  of  tne  glottis-closing  muscles,  strictly 
speaking,  for  these  muscles  are  too  small  and 
weak   to   withstand   the   powerful   air   pressure 


BREATHING  AND  BREATH-CONTROL       29 

exerted  against  the  vocal  cords.^  The  point  of 
resistance  is  located  just  above  the  vocal  cords. 
The  sudden  air  pressure  exerted  on  the  interior 
walls  of  the  larynx  by  the  expiratory  contraction 
causes  the  ventricles  of  the  larynx  to  expand  by 
inflation.  This  inflation  of  the  ventricles  brings 
their  upper  margins,  formed  by  the  false  vocal 
cords,  into  contact.  Thus  the  opening  from  the 
larynx  into  the  pharynx  is  closed.  This  closure 
is  not  effected  by  any  muscular  contraction,  there- 
fore it  is  not  dependent  on  the  strength  of  the 
muscular  fibers  of  the  false  vocal  cords.  It  is  an 
automatic  valvular  action,  directly  under  volun- 
tary control  so  far  as  the  contraction  of  the  expir- 
atory muscles  is  concerned,  but  independent  of 
volition  as  regards  the  action  of  the  false  vocal 
cords.  On  account  of  their  important  function  in 
this  operation  the  false  vocal  cords  are  called  the 
'breath-bands.'    Closure  of  the  glottis  by  the  infla- 

*  One  of  the  strongest  arguments  of  the  * '  breath-band  * '  advo- 
cates is  based  on  this  action, — the  resistance  of  the  closed  glottis 
to  a  powerful  expiratory  pressure.  The  theory  of  breath-control 
by  *' opposed  muscular  action''  takes  no  cognizance  of  this  opera'* 
tion.  It  will  however  be  shown  in  Chapter  II  of  Part  II  that  the 
''breath-band"  theorists  are  mistaken  in  asserting  that  the  action 
of  holding  the  breath  is  not  performed  by  the  glottis-closing 
muscles. 


V 


30  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

tion  of  the  ventricles  imposes  no  strain  on  the 
vocal  cords. 

**  Control  of  the  breath  in  singing  is  effected  by 
^this  automatic  valvular  action.  To  produce  a 
tone  according  to  this  system,  the  lungs  must  be 
filled  and  the  breath  held  in  the  manner  just 
described,  while  the  vocal  cords  are  brought  to  the 
proper  degree  of  tension ;  then  the  tone  is  started 
by  allowing  the  *  breath-bands'  to  separate  very 
slightly,  so  that  a  thin  stream  of  air  is  forced 
through  the  opening  between  their  margins.  The 
tone  is  ushered  in  by  a  slight  explosive  sound, 
which  is  nothing  but  the  well-known  stroke  of  the 
glottis.  So  long  as  the  expiratory  pressure  is 
steadily  maintained,  this  tone  may  be  held,  and  yet 
no  strain  is  imposed  on  the  vocal  cords.  Perfect 
control  of  the  breath  is  thus  attained.  For  a 
powerful  tone,  the  breath  blast  is  greater,  there- 
fore the  ventricles  are  more  widely  inflated,  and 
the  opening  between  the  ** breath-bands''  becomes 
narrower.  The  action  is  always  automatic;  once 
the  tone  is  correctly  started,  the  singer  need  pay 
no  further  attention  to  the  operation  of  the 
'breath-bands.'  All  that  is  necessary  is  to  main- 
tain a  steady  breath  pressure." 


BREATHING  AND  BREATH-CONTEOL       31 

In  the  methods  of  all  the  ** breath-band"  advo- 
cates, the  first  and  most  important  step  toward 
perfect  tone-production  is  held  to  be  the  acquire- 
ment of  this  automatic  breath-control.  As  in  the 
''opposed  muscular''  system,  the  initial  exercises 
are  toneless  drills  in  breathing.  The  basic  exer- 
cise, of  which  all  the  others  are  variations,  is  as 
follows:  ''Fill  the  lungs,  then  hold  the  breath  an 
instant,  and  forcibly  contract  all  the  chest  muscles. 
Then  force  the  air  out  slowly  and  powerfully 
through  the  glottis."  Practice  of  this  exercise  is 
always  accompanied  by  a  hissing  sound,  caused 
by  the  escape  of  the  air  through  the  narrow  slit 
between  (presumably)  the  "breath-bands."  Tone- 
production  by  the  same  muscular  action  is  very 
simple,  and  requires  no  further  explanation. 

In  its  practical  aspect  this  system  of  breath- 
control  is  the  direct  opposite  of  the  "opposed  mus- 
cular" system.  In  one  the  breath  is  expelled 
powerfully,  the  object  being  to  bring  a  strong 
expiratory  pressure  to  bear  on  the  lar3mx.  In 
the  other  system,  the  air  is  held  back,  in  order  that 
the  larynx  be  exposed  to  as  slight  a  pressure  as 
possible. 


32  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

The  *^ breath-band"  advocates  hold  that  the 
glottic  stroke  is  the  key  to  correct  laryngeal  action. 
As  a  rule  they  instruct  their  pupils  to  attack  every 
tone,  throughout  all  their  practising,  with  the 
stroke  of  the  glottis.  In  the  course  of  time  the 
automatic  valvular  action  is  supposed  to  become 
so  well  established  that  the  singer  can  dispense 
with  the  glottic  stroke  in  public  performance. 
Needless  to  say,  these  teachers  usually  recognize 
that  this  explosive  sound  is  very  harsh  and  un- 
musical, and  utterly  out  of  place  in  artistic  singing. 

An  important  claim  of  the  ** breath-band''  teach- 
ers is  that  their  doctrine  contains  the  explanation 
of  the  traditional  precept,  *' Support  the  tone." 
Their  idea  is  that  the  throat,  being  ** firmly  set," 
furnishes  a  secure  base  for  the  tone  to  rest  on. 
This  explanation  is  of  course  utterly  unscientific, 
and  it  cannot  be  said  to  throw  any  light  on  the 
meaning  of  the  precept.  * '  Singing  on  the  breath ' ' 
is  also  referred  to  this  system  of  breath-control, 
but  with  no  more  coherence  than  the  ' '  Support  of 
the  tone." 

No  necessary  connection  obtains  between  sys- 
tems of  breath-control  and  those  of  breathing 
strictly  speaking,  that  is,  of  inspiration.     As  has 


BEEATHING  AND  BREATH-CONTEOL       33 

been  said,  the  great  majority  of  vocal  theorists 
adhere  to  the  *' opposed  muscular  action"  breath- 
control.  In  this  number  are  included  advocates  of 
every  known  system  of  breathing.  Bitter  contro- 
versies have  been  carried  on  between  champions 
of  different  modes  of  breathing,  who  yet  agree 
that  the  breath  must  be  controlled  by  **  opposed 
action."  This  is  also  true,  although  not  to  the 
same  extent,  among  the  *' breath-band"  teachers. 
And  to  render  the  confusion  on  the  subject  of 
breathing  and  breath-control  complete,  instances 
might  be  cited  of  controversies  between  teachers 
who  agree  as  to  the  correct  mode  of  inspiration, 
and  yet  disagree  on  the  manner  of  controlling  the 
expiration. 

Both  systems  of  breath-control  cannot  be  right ; 
if  one  is  correct,  the  other  must  necessarily  be 
absolutely  wrong.  Instead  of  attempting  to  decide 
between  them,  it  will  be  seen  that  both  are  false, 
and  that  the  theory  on  wliich  they  rest  is  erron- 
eous. This  discussion  is  reserved  for  a  later 
chapter. 


CHAPTEE   III 

REGISTEES  AND  LAEYNGEAL  ACTION 

Probably  no  other  topic  of  Vocal  Science  has 
been  studied  so  earnestly  as  the  registers  of  the 
voice.  Yet  on  no  other  topic  is  there  such  wide 
diversity  of  opinion  among  theorists  and  in- 
vestigators. 

Very  little  is  definitely  known  regarding  the 
manner  in  which  the  subject  of  registers  was 
treated  by  the  old  Italian  masters.  Suffice  it  to 
say  here  that  the  old  masters  did  not  refer  the 
registers  to  changes  in  the  laryngeal  action. 
They  were  treated  simply  as  different  qualities 
of  tone,  each  quality  best  adapted  to  be  sung 
only  in  a  portion  of  the  voice  ^s  compass. 

In  the  early  decades  of  the  nineteenth  century 
the  registers  of  the  voice  received  much  attention 
from  vocal  theorists,  especially  in  Paris  Garcia 's 
first  published  work,  Memoire  siir  la  Voix  hu- 
maine,  was  presented  to  the  Academy  of 
Sciences  in  1840.     This  Memoire  gives  the  results 

34 


EEGISTEES   AND   LARYNGEAL   ACTION  35 

of  observations  which  Garcia  made  on  his  own 
pupils;  it  deals  mainly  with  the  position  of  the 
larynx  during  the  singing  of  tones  in  the  various 
registers.  Garcia  describes  how  the  larynx  is 
raised  and  lowered  in  the  throat,  according  to  the 
register  in  which  the  tones  are  produced.  He 
also  notes  the  position  of  the  tongue  and  the  soft 
palate. 

Widespread  interest  was  awakened  by  the 
account  of  Garcia 's  laryngoscopic  investigations 
of  the  registers,  published  in  1855.  The  attention 
of  the  great  majority  of  vocalists  was  at  once 
drawn  to  the  subject,  and  the  actions  of  the  vocal 
cords  in  the  different  registers  were  studied  by 
many  prominent  physicians  and  voice  specialists. 
Exhaustive  treatises  on  the  registers  have  since 
been  published  by  Mme.  Seller,  Behnke,  Curwen, 
Mills,  Battaille,  Curtis,  Holmes,  and  by  a  large 
number  of  other  investigators. 

All  the  results  of  the  laryngoscopic  investiga- 
tion of  the  vocal  action  have  been  disappointing 
in  the  extreme.  In  the  first  place,  no  two 
observers  have  obtained  exactly  the  same  results. 
Writing  in  1886,  Sir  Morell  Mackenzie  says: 
**  Direct  observation  with  the  laryngoscope  is,  of 


36  THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   SINGING 

course,  the  best  method  at  our  disposal,  but  that 
even  its  testimony  is  far  from  unexceptionable  is 
obvious  from  the  marvelous  differences  as  to  mat- 
ters of  fact  that  exist  among  observers.  It  is 
hardly  too  much  to  say  that  no  two  of  them  quite 
agree  as  to  what  is  seen."  {The  Hygiene  of  the 
Vocal  Organs,  London,  1886.)  Wesley  Mills,  in 
his  latest  work,  endeavors  to  show  a  substantial 
agreement  among  the  best  equipped  observers  of 
the  registers,  but  his  attempt  can  hardly  be  called 
convincing.  {Voice  Production  in  Singing  and 
Speaking,  Philadelphia,  1906.)  Opinions  on  the 
subject  of  registers,  held  by  the  leading  voice 
specialists  to-day,  are  fully  as  divergent  as  in 
1886.  Widely  different  statements  are  made  by 
prominent  authorities  as  to  the  number  of  regis- 
ters, the  vocal  cord  action  by  which  each  register 
is  produced,  and  the  number  of  notes  which  each 
one  should  properly  include. 

Another  deficiency  of  the  doctrine  of  registers 
is  even  more  serious  in  its  bearing  on  practical 
instruction.  Not  only  have  all  investigators  failed 
to  define  exactly  what  the  correct  laryngeal  action 
is.  Even  if  this  were  determined  it  would  still 
be  necessary  to  find  means  for  imparting  com- 


EEGISTERS    AND    LARYNGEAL   ACTION  37 

mand  of  this  correct  action  to  the  student  of 
singing.  Knowing  how  the  vocal  cords  should 
act  does  not  help  the  singer  in  the  least  to  govern 
their  action.  What  the  vocal  student  wishes  to 
know  is  how  to  cause  the  vocal  cords  to  assume 
the  correct  position  for  each  register.  On  this, 
the  most  important  topic  of  mechanical  Voice 
Culture,  Vocal  Science  has  shed  no  light  whatever. 
A  student  may  hear  descriptions  of  the  laryngeal 
action,  and  study  the  highly  interesting  laryn- 
goscopic  photographs  of  the  vocal  cords,  until 
thoroughly  familiar  with  the  theoretical  side  of 
the  subject.  Even  then,  the  student  is  no  better 
able  to  control  the  vocal  cord  action  than  when 
profoundly  ignorant  of  the  whole  matter. 

This  deficiency  of  Vocal  Science  is  frankly 
recognized  by  one  of  the  latest  authoritative 
writers  on  the  subject.  Dr.  Wesley  Mills.  On 
page  173  of  his  work  just  quoted,  he  advises  stu- 
dents to  hear  the  great  singers,  to  note  carefully 
the  quality  of  tone  which  characterizes  each  regis- 
ter, and  to  imitate  these  qualities  with  their  own 
voices.  This  advice  may  almost  be  described  as 
revolutionary.  Vocal  theorists  have  always  as- 
sumed that  the  correct  action  cannot  be  acquired 


38  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

by  imitation.  In  this  advice  to  rely  on  the  imita- 
tive faculty  for  acquiring  control  of  the  laryngeal 
action,  Dr.  Mills  abandons  the  basic  principle  of 
modern  methods.  Without  exception,  all  instruc- 
tion in  singing  is  to-day  based  on  the  idea  of 
mechanical  tone-production.  An  entirely  new 
theory  of  Voice  Culture  is  involved  in  this  advice 
of  Dr.  Mills. 

Turning  to  practical  methods  of  instruction,  it 
is  found  that  the  subject  of  registers  is  very  sel- 
dom treated  in  the  manner  suggested  by  the  the- 
oretical works  on  the  voice.  This  would  be,  to 
make  the  *^ placing"  of  the  voice  in  the  different 
registers  the  exclusive  subject  of  instruction  for  a 
certain  number  of  lessons ; — to  train  each  register 
of  the  voice  separately; — ^when  the  correct  vocal 
cord  action  had  been  established  in  each  register, 
to  unite  the  different  registers,  and  to  correct  any 
** breaks"  which  might  have  developed.  Com- 
paratively few  teachers  attempt  to  follow  this 
course.  The  great  majority  treat  the  registers  in 
a  much  less  systematic  fashion.  A  single  half- 
hour  lesson  usually  includes  explanations  and 
exercises  on  several  topics  of  mechanical  tone- 
production,  as  well  as  hints  on  agility,  style,  exe- 


EEGISTERS   AND   LAEYNGEAL   ACTION  39 

cution,  etc.  As  merely  one  of  this  variety  of 
subjects,  the  registers  usiially  receive  rather 
desultory  attention. 

Some  teachers  profess  to  ignore  the  subject  of 
registers  entirely.  They  maintain  that,  when 
properly  trained  from  the  beginning,  the  compass 
of  the  voice  is  one  homogeneous  whole;  ^* breaks" 
and  changes  of  quality  are  in  their  opinion  merely 
the  results  of  bad  instruction.  But  the  general 
belief  of  vocal  authorities  is  overwhelmingly 
against  these  teachers.  The  condition  which  they 
describe  is  without  doubt  the  ideal  of  vocal  man- 
agement; but  the  vast  majority  of  teachers  be- 
lieve that  this  condition  cannot  be  attained  with- 
out some  attention  being  paid  to  the  individual 
registers. 

Most  teachers  recognize  either  two  registers, — 
chest  and  head ;  or  three, — chest,  middle,  and  head. 
Comparatively  few  extremists  recognize  more 
than  three.  Several  sets  of  names  for  the  regis- 
ters have  been  proposed  by  vocal  theorists, — 
thick  and  thin,  long  reed  and  short  reed,  high  and 
low,  etc.  But  these  names  have  not  been  adopted 
by  teachers  to  any  extent. 


40  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

One  important  phase  of  the  registers  has  not 
received  much  attention  from  the  laryngoscopic 
investigators.  This  is,  that  most  of  the  notes  of 
the  voice's  compass  can  be  produced  at  will  in 
more  than  one  register.  Vocal  teachers  as  a  rule 
recognize  this  fact.  Julius  Stockhausen  for  in- 
stance, in  his  Gesangsmethode  (Leipzig,  1884), 
says:  **The  registers  cross  each  other.  The  two 
principal  registers  of  the  voice  have  many  tones 
in  common.  The  perfect  blending  of  the  regis- 
ters on  a  single  tone  leads  to  the  crescendo,  called 
in  Italian  the  messa  di  voce,^^  Teachers  gener- 
ally do  not  set  hard  and  fast  limits  to  the  extent 
of  each  register;  they  direct  that  in  singing  up 
the  scale  the  student  pass  gradually  from  chest 
to  middle,  middle  to  head  voice,  etc. 

In  most  practical  methods  the  chest  register 
occupies  about  the  same  position ;  this  is  also  true 
of  the  head  register.  Even  those  teachers  who 
profess  to  ignore  registers  recognize  these  two 
distinct  qualities  of  tone;  they  instruct  their 
pupils  to  sing  low  notes  in  one  quality,  and  high 
notes  in  the  other.  This  is  in  fact  the  general 
practice.  In  this  connection  the  topics  of  regis- 
ters   and   resonance    are    often   combined.     The 


REGISTEES    AND    LARYNGEAL    ACTION  41 

terms  *^head  voice,''  *4iead  register,''  and  ** nasal 
resonance,"  are  used  interchangeably  by  the  great 
majority  of  teachers.  This  is  also  true  of  the 
expressions  ** chest  voice,"  ** chest  resonance," 
and  *' chest  register." 

In  practical  instruction,  the  extending  of  the 
compass  of  the  voice  is  usually  treated,  rather 
loosely  perhaps  in  most  cases,  as  a  feature  of  the 
registers.  Methods  vary  greatly  in  points  of  de- 
tail, but  in  most  of  them  instruction  on  this  topic 
is  given  along  the  same  general  lines.  Usually 
the  three  classes  of  voices  receive  different  treat- 
ment, one  form  of  instruction  being  used  for 
sopranos  and  tenors,  another  for  mezzo-sopranos 
and  baritones,  and  a  third  for  altos  and  bassos. 

In  teaching  students  with  high  voices,  teachers 
usually  *^  place  "1  the  medium  notes  first,  roughly 
speaking,  from  G  to  d  (for  male  voices  one  octave 
lower).  Then  the  lower  notes  are  developed, 
mostly  by  descending  scale  passages,  the  lowest 
note  practised  being  usually  C.  The  high  notes 
are  sometimes  ** placed"  by  ascending  scale  pas- 
sages and  arpeggios,  but  more  often  by  the  octave 

*  The  expression  ' '  placing  the  voice  *  *  is  more  fully  treated  in 
Chap.  VI.  It  is  assumed,  however,  that  the  reader  is  familiar 
with  the  ordinary  usage  of  this  expression. 


42  THE   PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

jump  and  descending  scale.  There  is  room  for 
considerable  variation  in  this  class  of  exercises, 
but  they  all  conform  to  the  same  general  prin- 
ciple. 

For  mezzos  and  baritones  about  the  same  sys- 
tem is  followed,  the  exercises  being  sung  a  major 
third  or  so  lower.  In  the  case  of  contraltos  and 
bassos,  the  voice  is  usually  trained  from  the  mid- 
dle in  both  directions.  Most  teachers  favor  the 
'* chest  voice"  for  singers  of  these  types  through- 
out the  entire  compass. 

A  discussion  of  the  use  of  special  vowels  and 
consonants  in  this  class  of  exercises  is  contained 
in  Chapter  V. 

It  must  not  be  understood  that  this  topic  of 
instruction  is  assigned  by  many  teachers  to  any 
particular  period  of  the  student  ^s  progress. 
Moreover,  practice  in  the  registers  seldom  forms 
the  exclusive  material  of  lessons  and  home  study 
for  any  definite  time.  The  wide  range  of  topics 
considered  in  the  average  singing  lesson  has  al- 
ready been  mentioned. 

Very  little  connection  can  be  traced  between  the 
scientific  doctrine  of  registers,  and  the  treatment 
which  this  subject  receives  in  modern  methods. 


BEGISTEES   AND    LAEYNGEAL    ACTION  43 

This  is  only  to  be  expected,  in  view  of  the  fact  that 
laryngoscopic  investigation  has  not  resulted  in 
practical  rules  for  managing  the  vocal  cords.  The 
registers  of  the  voice  are  handled  by  modern 
teachers  in  a  purely  empirical  fashion. 

Movements  of  the  Larynx,  Tongue,  and 
Soft  Palate 

It  was  remarked,  in  speaking  of  the  registers, 
that  no  mechanical  means  has  ever  been  found  for 
directly  controlling  the  operations  of  the  vocal 
cords.  To  this  statement  one  apparent  exception 
is  seen  in  the  method  originated  by  John  Howard. 
This  earnest  student  of  the  voice  sought  to  carry 
out,  to  its  logical  conclusion,  the  accepted  idea  of 
mechanical  vocal  control.  In  this  respect  he 
stands  practically  alone.  His  is  the  only  method 
which  even  pretends  to  reduce  the  entire  opera- 
tion of  correct  tone-production  to  a  set  of  defined 
muscular  contractions. 

Howard's  theories,  with  the  details  of  a  prac- 
tical method  based  thereon,  are  fully  described  in 
his  most  important  published  work,  The  Physiol- 
ogy of  Artistic  Singing,  New  York,  1886.  A  com- 
plete exposition  of  Howard's  theories  is  not  called 


44  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

for  here.  For  the  present  purpose  the  following 
short  summary  will  suffice : 

**The  difference  between  correct  tone-produc- 
tion and  any  incorrect  vocal  action  is  solely  a 
matter  of  laryngeal  adjustment  and  vocal  cord 
action.  Whether  the  tone  produced  be  right  or 
wrong,  the  influence  of  the  resonance  cavities  is 
about  the  same.  It  is  therefore  idle  to  pay  any 
attention  to  the  subject  of  air  resonance.  Only 
one  form  of  resonance  is  of  any  value  in  tone- 
production  (considered  as  distinct  from  vowel 
formation).  This  is  the  sounding-board  reso- 
nance of  the  bones  of  the  head  and  chest.  To 
secure  this,  the  most  important  reinforcement  of 
the  tone,  the  larynx  must  be  firmly  held  in  a  fixed 
position  against  the  backbone,  at  the  fifth  cervical 
vertebra.  All  theories  as  to  the  registers  of  the 
voice,  derived  from  laryngoscopic  observation^, 
are  completely  erroneous. 

*'In  the  production  of  tone,  the  muscular  tissue 
of  the  vocal  cords  is  thrown  into  vibration  by  the 
air  blast,  and  not  merely  the  membranous  cover- 
ing of  the  inner  edges  of  the  cords.  For  a  soft 
tone,  only  a  portion  of  the  fleshy  mass  of  the 
vocal  cords  vibrates;  if  this  tone  is  gradually 


EEGISTEES   AND    LAEYNGEAL    ACTION  45 

swelled  to  fortissimo,  a  constantly  increasing 
portion  of  the  mnscnlar  tissue  is  called  into  play. 
For  the  loudest  tone,  the  entire  mass  of  the  vocal 
cords  is  bought  into  vibration.  Thus  the  in- 
creased volume  of  the  tone  results  not  alone  from 
the  increase  in  the  power  of  the  breath  blast. 
Each  addition  to  the  power  of  the  expiration  de- 
mands also  a  change  in  the  adjustment  of  the 
vocal  cords. 

**The  contractions  of  the  muscles  inside  the 
larynx,  including  the  vocal  cords,  cannot  be 
brought  under  direct  voluntary  control.  But 
these  contractions  can  be  regulated  by  the  actions 
of  other  sets  of  muscles,  viz.,  those  by  which  the 
larynx  is  connected  with  the  skeletal  framework 
of  the  head,  neck,  and  chest.  These  latter  muscles 
can  all  be  controlled  by  direct  volition.  Each  of 
these  sets  of  muscles  has  its  function  in  tone- 
production.  One  set  pulls  the  larynx  backward, 
into  the  position  already  described,  against  the 
backbone.  Two  other  opposed  sets  hold  the 
larynx  firmly  in  this  position,  one  set  pulling  up- 
ward, the  other  downward.  Finally,  and  most 
important  in  their  influence  on  the  actions  of  the 
vocal  cords,  a  fourth  set  of  muscles  comes  into 


/ 


46  THE   PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

play.  These  tilt  the  thyroid  cartilage  forward  or 
backward,  and  thus  bring  about  a  greater  or  less' 
tension  of  the  vocal  cords,  independent  of  the 
contractions  of  the  muscles  of  the  vocal  cords 
themselves.  In  this  way  is  regulated  the  amount 
of  the  fleshy  mass  of  the  vocal  cords  exposed  to 
the  expiratory  blast.  Correct  tone-production 
results  when  exactly  the  necessary  degree  of 
strength  is  exerted  by  each  one  of  these  four  sets 
of  muscles." 

For  each  of  these  groups  of  muscles  Howard 
devised  a  system  of  exercises  and  drills  by  which 
the  singer  is  supposed  to  bring  all  the  movements 
involved  under  direct  voluntary  control.  The 
parts  thus  exercised  are  the  tongue,  the  soft  pal- 
ate, the  jaw,  the  fauces,  and  also  the  muscles  by 
which  the  larynx  is  raised  and  lowered  in  the 
throat,  and  those  by  which  the  chest  is  raised.  In 
teaching  a  pupil  Howard  took  up  each  part  in 
turn.  A  sufficient  number  of  lessons  was  devoted 
to  each  set  of  muscles  for  the  pupil  (presumably) 
to  acquire  the  necessary  control  of  each  group. 

Howard  also  paid  much  attention  to  the  breath ; 
he  worked  out  the  system  of  high-chest  breathing 
in  a  really  masterly  fashion.    But  his  manner  of 


REGISTERS   AND   LARYNGEAL    ACTION  47 

dealing  with  this  subject  did  not  differ  from  that 
of  a  great  number  of  other  teachers. 

Howard  retired  from  active  teaching  about 
1895.  His  theories  of  the  vocal  action  have  never 
been  generally  accepted  by  vocal  theorists,  and 
the  number  of  teachers  who  now  profess  to  follow 
his  method  is  very  small.  There  are,  however, 
many  other  masters  whose  methods,  in  their  main 
features,  are  patterned  after  Howard's.  These 
latter  teachers  may  therefore  be  justly  said  to  fol- 
low the  Howard  system,  even  though  they  give 
him  no  credit  for  their  doctrines  of  vocal  control. 

Howard  usually  insisted  that  his  pupils  should 
understand  the  theoretical  basis  of  his  method, 
and  the  exact  purpose  of  each  exercise  and  mus- 
cular contraction.  But  as  a  rule  his  successors 
do  not  make  this  demand  on  their  pupils.  They 
are  content  to  have  the  students  practise  the  pre- 
scribed exercises;  this  the  students  do,  with  very 
little  thought  about  the  theory  lying  behind  the 
method.  For  the  pupil  this  system,  as  at  present 
generally  taught,  consists  solely  of  a  series  of 
muscular  drills  for  the  tongue,  larynx,  palate,  etc. 

In  this  review  of  modern  methods,  the  Howard 
system  is  important,  mainly  because  it  represents 


48  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

the  consistent  application  of  the  idea  of  mechan- 
ical tone-production.  As  was  observed,  Howard's 
theories  had  very  little  influence  on  the  general 
trend  of  Vocal  Science.  The  external  features  of 
the  Howard  system  are  indeed  shared  to  some  ex- 
tent by  the  methods  of  many  other  teachers. 
Muscular  drills  of  about  the  same  type  are  very 
widely  used.  Some  teachers  go  so  far  in  this 
respect  that  their  methods  might  almost  be  con- 
founded with  the  Howard  system.  But  the 
resemblance  is  purely  external.  Even  in  1880,  at 
the  time  when  Howard  had  fairly  perfected  his 
method,  there  was  nothing  novel  about  exercises 
of  this  type.  The  first  attempts  at  a  practical 
study  of  vocal  mechanics  consisted  of  observa- 
tions of  those  parts  of  the  vocal  organs  whose 
movements  can  be  readily  seen  and  felt.  These 
are  the  lips,  tongue,  palate,  and  larynx.  Garcia 's 
Memoire,  already  cited,  is  mainly  a  record  of 
observations  of  this  kind.  Nearly  every  vocal 
theorist  since  that  time  has  also  paid  some  atten- 
tion to  this  phase  of  the  vocal  action. 

In  practical  methods  of  instruction,  elaborate 
systems  of  rules  have  long  been  in  use  for  govern- 
ing the  positions  of  the  tongue,  lips,  palate,  etc. 


REGISTEES    AND    LAEYNGEAL   ACTION  49 

Unlike  the  Howard  theory,  no  definite  scientific 
basis  is  usually  given  for  specific  directions  of 
this  kind.  Each  investigator  has  simply  noted 
how  certain  great  singers  held  their  tongues  or 
soft  palates,  whether  the  larynx  was  held  high  or 
low  in  the  throat,  etc.,  and  considered  that  these 
must  be  the  correct  positions.  It  would  be  hard 
to  find  a  greater  diversity  of  opinion  on  any  topic 
connected  with  the  voice  than  is  encountered  here. 
To  enumerate  all  the  rules  which  are  given  for 
governing  the  actions  of  each  part  would  be  use- 
less. A  few  of  the  contradictory  opinions  regard- 
ing the  correct  position  of  the  larynx  will  suffice 
to  show  how  great  is  the  confusion  on  this  topic : 
''The  larynx  should  be  held  low  in  the  throat 
for  all  tones."  ''It  should  be  held  in  a  fixed  posi- 
tion high  in  the  throat."  "It  should  be  high  for 
low  tones,  and  should  descend  as  the  pitch  rises." 
"It  should  be  in  a  low  position  for  the  lowest  note 
of  each  register,  and  should  rise  as  the  pitch  rises ; 
when  the  highest  note  of  the  register  is  reached, 
it  should  at  once  descend  for  the  lowest  note  of 
the  next  register."  Prominent  teachers  and 
writers  could  be  cited  as  authority  for  each  of 
these  rules,  and  indeed  for   several  others.    A 


50  THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   SINGING 

similar  diversity  of  opinion  is  found  regarding 
the  rnles  given  for  the  position  of  the  tongue  and 
the  soft  palate. 

Practices  vary  greatly  as  to  the  amount  of  time 
and  attention  devoted  to  muscular  drills  of  the 
parts  under  consideration,  and  also  as  to  the 
importance  attached  to  the  positions  of  these 
parts.  Some  teachers  make  this  a  prominent 
feature  of  their  methods.  The  majority,  how- 
ever, treat  the  subject  much  more  lightly.  They 
now  and  then  devote  a  part  of  the  lesson  time  to 
the  muscular  drills  and  exercises ;  for  the  rest,  an 
occasional  hint  or  correction  regarding  the  posi- 
tions of  the  parts  is  deemed  sufficient. 

All  the  movements  of  the  tongue,  lips,  and  jaw 
are  directly  under  voluntary  control.  Exercises 
for  these  parts  are  therefore  given  only  for 
acquiring  suppleness  and  agility.  The  muscular 
movements  of  the  larynx  and  soft  palate  are 
readily  brought  under  control.  Each  can  simply 
be  raised  and  lowered.  A  few  minutes'  daily 
practice,  extended  over  three  or  four  weeks,  is 
generally  sufficient  for  the  student  to  acquire  sat- 
isfactory command  of  these  actions.  But  to  hold 
the  tongue,  palate,  and  larynx  in  any  prescribed 


REGISTEES    AND    LARYNGEAL    ACTION  51 

position,  while  singing  a  tone,  is  an  extremely 
troublesome  matter.  Those  teachers  who  adhere 
to  precise  systems  for  the  positions  of  these  parts, 
frequently  impose  much  arduous  practice  on  their 
pupils.  As  to  the  merits  of  any  special  system 
of  the  kind,  this  question  is  reserved  for  future 
discussion. 

Attack 
It  would  be  hard  to  determine  when  the  term 
** attack"  was  first  used  to  describe  the  starting 
of  a  vocal  tone.  Nor  is  it  easy  to  define  the 
precise  position  assigned  to  the  subject  of  attack 
by  vocal  theorists.  No  satisfactory  statement  of 
the  theory  of  attack  can  be  cited  from  any  pub- 
lished treatise  on  Vocal  Science.  It  is  commonly 
asserted,  rather  loosely  indeed,  that  the  tone  must 
be  *^ started  right."  As  Clara  Kathleen  Rogers 
expresses  it,  *  *  Attack  the  tone  badly,  and  nothing 
can  improve  it  afterwards."  {The  Philosophy  of 
Singing,  New  York,  1893.)  This  statement  is  in 
the  practical  sense  utterly  unfounded.  A  tone 
may  be  '* attacked"  with  a  nasal  or  throaty  qual- 
ity, and  then  be  improved,  by  simply  eliminating 
the  objectionable  quality.  Of  this  fact  the  reader 
may  readily  convince  himself.    In  short,  all  the 


52  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

accepted  theories  of  attack  rest  on  an  unscientific 
basis. 

Vocal  theorists  generally  treat  the  subject  of 
attack  as  connected  in  some  way  with  registers 
and  laryngeal  action.  But  as  no  rule  has  ever 
been  formulated  for  the  mechanical  management 
of  the  laryngeal  action,  it  necessarily  follows  that 
no  intelligible  directions  are  ever  given  to  the 
student  for  preparing  to  start  the  laryngeal  action 
correctly. 

Three  possible  ways  of  attacking  a  tone  are  gen- 
erally recognized.  These  are  described  by  Albert 
B.  Bach,  in  The  Principles  of  Singing,  second 
edition,  London,  1897.  They  are,  first,  the  stroke 
of  the  glottis.  (This  is  advocated  by  Garcia  in 
most  of  his  published  works,  although  the  tes- 
timony of  many  of  his  pupils,  notably  Mme. 
Marchesi,  is  that  Garcia  used  the  glottic  stroke 
very  little  in  actual  instruction.)  Second,  the 
aspirate  {h  as  in  have),  which  is  generally  con- 
demned. Third,  the  approximation  of  the  vocal 
cords  at  the  precise  instant  the  breath  blast 
strikes  them.  This  latter  mode  of  attack  is  advo- 
cated by  Browne  and  Behnke,  who  call  it  the 
*' slide  of  the  glottis. '^    It  must  be  observed  that 


EEGISTERS   AND   LAEYNGEAL   ACTION  55 

neither  the  stroke  nor  the  slide  of  the  glottis  can 
be  shown  to  have  any  influence  in  causing  the 
laryngeal  muscles  to  adopt  any  particular  mode 
of  adjustment. 

Turning  to  practical  methods  of  instruction, 
little  connection  can  be  traced  between  the  theories 
of  attack  and  the  occasional  directions  usually 
given  for  starting  the  tone.  The  subject  of  attack 
is  seldom  assigned  to  any  particular  period  in  the 
course  of  study.  Many  teachers  ignore  the  mat- 
ter altogether.  Others  devote  a  few  minutes  now 
and  then  to  drilling  a  pupil  in  the  stroke  of  the 
glottis,  without  attaching  much  importance  to 
the  subject.  (The  position  assigned  to  this  mode 
of  attack  by  the  '* breath-band"  theorists  has 
already  been  mentioned.)  On  the  whole,  the  mat- 
ter of  attack  is  usually  treated  rather  loosely. 
The  pupil  is  occasionally  interrupted  in  singing  a 
phrase,  and  told  to  '* attack  the  tone  better." 
Needless  to  say,  this  form  of  instruction  is  in  no 
sense  scientific. 


CHAPTER  rV 

EESONANCE 

In  order  to  understand  fully  the  position  in 
Vocal  Science  assigned  to  the  doctrine  of  reso- 
nance, it  is  necessary  to  trace  the  origin  and  the 
development  of  this  doctrine.  The  old  Italian 
masters  naturally  knew  nothing  whatever  of 
resonance,  nor  of  any  other  topic  of  acoustics. 
Yet  the  accepted  theories  of  resonance  in  its  rela- 
tion to  the  voice  are  directly  based  on  a  set  of 
empirical  observations  made  by  the  old  masters. 
The  facts  which  they  noted  are  now  a  matter  of 
common  knowledge.  In  singing  low  notes  a  sen- 
sation of  trembling  or  vibration  is  felt  in  the  upper 
chest;  high  notes  are  accompanied  by  a  similar 
sensation  in  the  head.  How  these  sensations  of 
vibration  came  to  be  made  the  basis  of  the 
theories  of  vocal  resonance,  and  of  registers  as 
well,  is  an  interesting  bit  of  vocal  history. 

Although  almost  entirely  ignorant  of  vocal 
mechanics  in  the  scientific  sense,  the  old  masters 

54 


EESONANCE  56 

were  eager  students  of  the  voice.  They  carefully 
noted  the  characteristic  sound  of  each  tone  of  the 
voice,  and  worked  out  what  they  believed  to  be  a 
comprehensive  theory  of  tone-production.  One 
of  their  observations  was  that  in  every  voice  the 
low  notes  have  a  somewhat  different  quality  from 
the  high  notes.  To  distinguish  these  two  qualities 
of  tone  the  old  masters  adopted  the  word  used 
for  a  similar  purpose  by  the  organ  builders, — 
register.  Further,  they  noted  the  sensation  of 
vibration  in  the  chest  caused  by  singing  low  notes, 
and  concluded  that  these  notes  are  actually  pro- 
duced in  the  chest.  To  the  lower  notes  of  the 
voice  they  therefore  gave  the  name  *' chest  reg- 
ister.'' As  Tosi  explains  it,  ^'Voce  di  Petto  is  a 
full  voice,  which  comes  from  the  breast  by 
strength.''  For  a  precisely  similar  reason,  viz., 
the  sensation  of  vibration  in  the  head  felt  in  sing- 
ing the  higher  notes,  this  portion  of  the  voice  was 
called  by  the  old  masters  the  '*head  register." 

When  the  study  of  vocal  mechanics  along  scien- 
tific lines  was  undertaken,  in  the  early  decades  of 
the  nineteenth  century,  attention  was  at  first  paid 
almost  exclusively  to  the  subject  of  registers.  The 
questions  then  most  discussed  were  the  number  of 


56  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

registers,  the  mimber  of  notes  which  each  should 
include,  and  the  precise  point  of  production  of 
each  register  in  the  chest,  throat,  and  head. 
Garcia 's  Memoir e,  dealing  with  the  registers,  was 
noticed  in  the  preceding  chapter.  He  showed  that 
different  adjustments  of  the  tongue,  palate,  and 
larynx  are  concerned  in  the  production  of  the 
various  registers.  This  Memoire  opened  up  a  new 
line  of  observation,  in  which  Garcia  continued  to 
take  the  lead.  But  the  extending  of  the  scope  of 
inquiry  concerning  the  registers  did  not  result  in 
any  unanimity  of  opinion  on  the  part  of  the  vocal 
investigators  of  that  time. 

For  a  few  years  following  the  invention  of  the 
laryngoscope  (1855),  vocal  theorists  ceased  their- 
disputes  about  the  registers,  and  awaited  the 
definite  results  of  this  new  mode  of  observation. 
When  this  potent  little  instrument  was  put  within 
the  reach  of  every  investigator,  it  was  believed 
that  the  mystery  surrounding  the  registers  was 
about  to  be  dispelled. 

One  important  consequence  of  the  invention  of 
the  laryngoscope  was  the  turning  of  attention 
away  from  the  sensations  of  vibration  in  the  chest 
and  head.    Each  register  was  ascribed  to  a  dis- 


EESONANCE  57 

tinct  mode  of  operation  of  the  vocal  cords,  and 
for  several  years  the  terms  ** chest  voice"  and 
*'head  voice**  were  held  to  be  scientifically  un- 
sound. But  with  the  publication  of  Helmholtz's 
Die  Lehre  von  den  Tonempfindungen  in  1863, 
the  sensations  of  vibration  again  received  atten- 
tion. These  sensations  were  then  made  the  basis 
of  a  theory  of  vocal  resonance,  which  has  since 
been  adopted  by  the  great  majority  of  vocal 
scientists. 

Until  the  publication  of  Helmholtz's  work  vocal 
theorists  had  known  practically  nothing  of  acous- 
tics. The  fact  that  the  tones  produced  by  the 
vocal  cords  are  increased  in  power  and  modified 
in  quality  by  the  resonance  of  the  air  in  the 
mouth-pharynx  cavity  came  as  a  distinct  revela- 
tion to  the  theoretical  students  of  the  voice. 
Helmholtz  confined  his  experiments  and  demon- 
strations to  the  mouth-pharynx  cavity,  and  inves- 
tigated in  particular  the  influence  of  this  cavity 
in  producing  the  various  vowel  and  consonant 
sounds.  But  vocal  theorists  at  once  extended  the 
idea  of  air  resonance,  and  connected  it  with  the 
well-known  sensations  of  vibration  in  the  chest 
and  head.    It  was  assumed  that  these  sensations 


58  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

are  caused  by  vibrations  of  the  air  in  the  chest 
and  nasal  cavities. 

This  assumption  has  been  accepted  without 
question  by  the  great  majority  of  vocal  scientists. 
Both  the  chest  voice  and  the  head  voice  are  now 
believed  to  owe  their  distinctive  qualities  to  the 
reinforcing  vibrations  of  the  air  in  the  chest  and 
nasal  cavities  respectively.  The  mere  fact  that 
these  vibrations  can  be  felt  is  held  sufficient  proof 
of  the  statement.  ^*In  every  true  chest  tone  the 
resonance  can  be  distinctly  felt  as  a  vibration 
(fremitus  pectoralis)  by  the  hand  laid  flat  on  the 
chest."  (Die  Kunst  der  idealen  Tonhildung,  Dr. 
W.  Eeinecke,  Leipzig,  1906.)  It  must  be  observed 
that  this  is  by  no  means  a  satisfactory  scientific 
proof  of  the  doctrine  of  chest  resonance.  This 
feature  of  the  subject  is  reserved  for  discussion 
later. 

The  doctrine  of  resonance  is  now  generally 
accepted  as  one  of  the  basic  principles  of  Vocal 
Science.  It  is  stated,  in  substance,  by  almost 
every  authority  on  the  voice  that  **The  tone 
produced  by  the  vibration  of  the  vocal  cords,  even 
when  the  laryngeal  action  is  correct  in  every  way, 
is  weak,  of  poor  quality,  and  without  character. 


EESONANCE  6ft 

This  tone  must  be  strengthened  and  made  of 
musical  quality  by  utilizing  the  influence  of 
resonance/'  The  subject  of  resonance  is  always 
treated  in  theoretical  works  on  the  voice  under 
the  three  heads  of  chest,  mouth-pharynx,  and 
nasal  resonance.  To  these  a  fourth  is  sometimes 
added, — the  sounding-board  resonance  of  the 
bones  of  the  chest  and  head. 

Mouth-Pharynx  Resonance 

Considered  strictly  in  its  bearing  on  tone-pro- 
duction, the  resonance  of  the  mouth-pharynx 
cavity  does  not  receive  much  attention  from 
theoretical  observers  of  the  voice.  The  form 
assumed  by  this  cavity  is  of  necessity  determined 
by  the  vowel  to  be  sung.  Aside  from  its  function 
in  the  pronunciation  of  words,  the  influence  of 
mouth-pharynx  resonance  on  the  tones  of  the 
voice  is  seldom  discussed  by  vocal  scientists. 

As  a  rule,  vocal  teachers  pay  little  attention  to 
this  form  of  resonance.  The  subject  of  enuncia- 
tion is  generally  treated  as  distinct  from  tone- 
production  strictly  speaking.  While  the  correct 
emission  of  the  tone,  in  its  passage  from  the  vocal 
cords  to  the  lips,  is  considered  a  very  important 


60  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

topic,  this  feature  of  tone-production  has  no 
reference  to  resonance. 

One  exception  must  be  made  to  the  statement 
that  no  attention  is  paid  to  mouth-pharynx  reso- 
nance. This  is  found  in  an  interpretation  of  the 
empirical  precept, '  *  Sing  with  open  throat. ' '  Sev- 
eral vocal  theorists  take  this  precept  literally,  and 
hold  that  it  describes  a  function  of  mouth- 
pharynx  resonance.  According  to  their  idea  the 
cavity  must  be  expanded  to  the  largest  size  pos- 
sible, on  the  theory  that  a  large  resonance  cavity 
secures  a  proportionately  greater  reinforcement 
of  the  tone.  ''The  greater  the  size  of  the  pharynx, 
whether  through  practice  or  natural  gifts,  the 
stronger  in  proportion  is  the  tone."  (Die  Kunst 
der  idealen  Tonbildung,  Dr.  W.  Eeinecke,  Leip- 
zig, 1906.)  This  theory  is  of  course  rather  loose 
and  unscientific.  Still  this  idea, — a  literal  inter- 
pretation of  the  ''open  throat"  precept, — receives 
much  attention  in  practical  instruction. 

Only  one  muscular  action  has  ever  been  defined 
by  which  the  throat  might  be  "opened."  That 
is,  the  lowering  of  the  larynx  and  the  raising  of 
the  soft  palate.  Many  teachers  therefore  direct 
that  the  throat  be  "opened"  gradually  in  this 


EESONANCE  61 

way  for  the  swelling  of  the  tone.  It  is  assumed 
that  the  power  of  the  voice  is  developed  by  sing- 
ing with  the  larynx  low  in  the  throat.  This  man- 
ner of  instruction  is,  however,  very  loosely  given. 
The  supposedly  scientific  interpretation  of  the 
**open  throat"  precept  shades  off  into  a  purely 
empirical  application. 

Chest  Resonance 
In  no  other  topic  of  Vocal  Science  is  the  gap 
between  theory  and  practice  more  striking  than 
in  the  doctrine  of  chest  resonance.  Vocal  teach- 
ers are  in  fair  accord  in  believing  the  resonance 
of  the  air  in  the  chest  to  be  the  most  important 
influence  in  imparting  power  and  ^* color"  to  the 
voice,  and  particularly  to  the  lower  notes  of  its 
compass.  Students  of  singing  are  in  almost  all 
cases  urged  to  acquire  a  proper  conmaand  of 
chest  resonance.  But  when  it  comes  to  telling  the 
student  how  to  learn  to  govern  the  chest  reso- 
nance, the  teacher  has  practically  nothing  to 
offer.  No  direct  means  has  ever  been  found 
for  causing  the  air  in  the  thorax  to  vibrate;  this 
cannot  be  effected,  so  far  as  has  yet  been  deter- 
mined, by  any  voluntary  muscular  action  on  the 
part  of  the  singer. 


62  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

This  being  the  case,  intelligible  instruction  in 
the  use  and  management  of  chest  resonance  is 
hardly  to  be  expected.  Teachers  of  singing  are 
obliged  to  fall  back  on  purely  empirical  instruc- 
tion on  this  topic.  This  usually  takes  the  form  of 
a  description  of  the  sensations  experienced  by  the 
singer  when  producing  tones  in  the  chest  voice. 
How  this  description  of  the  singer's  sensations  is 
applied,  is  discussed  in  the  following  chapter. 

Nasal  Resonance 

The  lack  of  connection  between  the  theories 
of  vocal  scientists  and  the  practical  methods 
of  singing  teachers  is  well  illustrated  in  the 
subject  of  nasal  resonance.  A  striking  feature 
of  all  the  discussions  concerning  the  use  or 
avoidance  of  nasal  resonance  is  the  fact  that 
vocal  theorists  base  their  opinions  entirely  on 
empirical  observations.  The  use  of  nasal  reso- 
nance is  condemned  by  almost  every  prominent 
authority  on  Vocal  Science.  Yet  the  only  reason 
ever  advanced  for  condemning  nasal  resonance 
is  the  fact  that  a  tone  of  objectionable  nasal  qual- 
ity seems  to  '*come  through  the  nose.'*  This  fact 
cannot,  of  course,  be  questioned.    It  is  mentioned 


RESONANCE  68 

by  Tosi,  who  speaks  of  the  **  defect  of  singing 
through  the  nose,"  and  is  observed  by  everybody 
possessed  of  an  ear  keen  enough  to  detect  the 
nasal  quality  of  sound. 

It  is  generally  stated  by  vocal  theorists  that  the 
nasal  quality  is  imparted  to  the  tone  by  the  influ- 
ence of  the  resonance  of  the  air  in  the  nasal  cavi- 
ties. In  order  to  prove  this  assertion  Browne 
and  Behnke  offer  the  following  experiment, 
(quoted  in  substance) :  **Hold  a  hand-mirror  flat, 
face  up,  just  below  the  nostrils.  Then  sing  a 
nasal  tone;  you  will  note  that  the  mirror  is 
clouded,  showing  that  part  of  the  breath  has 
passed  through  the  nasal  cavities.  Now  sing 
another  tone,  free  from  the  fault  of  nasal  quality ; 
this  time  the  mirror  is  not  clouded,  which  proves 
that  no  air  has  passed  through  the  cavities  in 
question."  {Voice,  Song  and  Speech.)  This 
experiment  is  simplified  by  other  authorities,  who 
direct  that  the  nostrils  be  pinched  by  the  fingers, 
and  then  allowed  to  open  by  the  removal  of  the 
pressure  of  the  fingers.  A  steady  tone  is  mean- 
while to  be  sung.  It  will  be  noted,  according  to 
these  theorists,  that  with  the  nostrils  open  the  tone 
is  nasal,  and  with  the  nostrils  closed  the  tone  is 


64  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

not  nasal.  This  proves  to  their  satisfaction  that 
a  tone  passing  in  whole  or  in  part  through  the 
nasal  cavities  must  be  nasal  in  quality. 

It  must  be  noted  here  that  these  experiments 
are  not  in  any  sense  convincing.  A  tone  of 
objectionable  nasal  quality  can  be  sung  equally 
well  with  the  nostrils  either  closed  or  open,  and 
so  can  a  tone  free  from  the  nasal  quality. 

In  theory,  the  mechanical  prevention  of  nasal 
resonance  is  very  simple.  It  is  necessary  only  to 
raise  the  soft  palate  in  singing,  and  thus  to  cut 
off  the  expired  breath  from  passing  into  the 
nasal  cavities.  Most  vocal  scientists  advise  that 
the  singer  hold  the  soft  palate  raised  for  every 
tone. 

Practical  teachers  of  singing  pay  little  attention 
to  the  theoretical  discussions  concerning  nasal 
resonance.  The  overwhelming  majority  of  teach- 
ers are  firm  believers  in  nasal  resonance,  and 
make  it  an  important  feature  of  their  methods. 
They  believe  that  this  resonance  is  the  most 
important  factor  in  giving  to  the  tone  its  *' point," 
brilliance,  and  carrying  power. 

So  far  as  instruction  in  the  use  of  nasal  reso- 
nance is  concerned,  teachers  owe  but  little  to  the 


RESONANCE  65 

mechanical  doctrines  of  Vocal  Science.  No  vol- 
untary mnscnlar  operation  has  ever  been  found, 
by  which  the  air  in  the  nasal  cavities  can  be 
directly  thrown  into  vibration,  and  so  made  to 
reinforce  the  tones  of  the  voice.  Instruction  in 
the  management  of  nasal  resonance  is  therefore 
similar  to  that  in  chest  resonance.  The  teacher 
describes  the  sensations  experienced  by  a  singer 
who  produces  the  exact  quality  of  tone  desired. 
Use  is  also  made  of  special  vowels  and  consonants, 
for  (supposedly)  acquiring  command  of  nasal 
resonance.  A  description  of  this  form  of  instruc- 
tion is  given  in  the  following  chapter. 

Sounding-Board  Resonance 

The  acoustic  principle  of  sounding-board  reso- 
nance, in  its  application  to  the  voice,  is  discussed 
by  several  vocal  scientists.  It  is  usually  treated 
under  two  heads:  first,  the  entire  body  is  looked 
upon  as  a  sounding  board,  capable  of  reinforcing 
the  tones  of  the  voice  under  certain  conditions. 
Second,  the  bones  of  the  chest  and  of  the  head  are 
thought  to  be  thrown  into  vibration,  in  sympathy 
with  the  vibrations  of  the  air  in  the  chest  and 
nasal  cavities  respectively. 


66  THE   PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

The  importance  attached  by  Howard  to  the 
sounding-board  resonance  of  the  entire  body  has 
already  been  noticed.  Aside  from  the  teachers  of 
the  Howard  system,  very  few  masters  pay  any 
attention  to  this  feature  of  vocal  reinforcement. 
Those  who  do  so  have  no  difficulty  in  dealing  with 
the  subject.  YvH^ien  the  singer  stands  in  the  posi- 
tion generally  considered  correct  for  singing,  the 
body  is  said  to  be  in  the  position  most  favorable 
for  securing  the  benefits  of  this  form  of  resonance. 
For  this  no  special  rules  or  exercises  are  needed. 

Very  little  attention  is  paid,  in  practical  instruc- 
tion, to  the  vibrations  of  the  bones  of  the  reso- 
nance cavities.  Each  cavity  is  treated  as  a  whole ; 
the  fact  is  only  occasionally  mentioned  that  the 
bones  inclosing  the  cavities  may  vibrate,  as  well 
as  the  inclosed  air. 


CHAPTER  V 

EMPIEICAL  MATERIALS  OF  MODERN  METHODS 

A  SERIES  of  topics  included  in  modern  methods 
is  now  to  be  considered,  different  in  scope  from 
the  strictly  mechanical  features  of  tone-produc- 
tion so  far  described.  It  must  be  apparent  to  the 
reader  that  the  present  understanding  of  the 
muscular  processes  of  singing  is  not  sufficient  to 
furnish  a  complete  method  of  instruction.  This 
fact  is  thoroughly  appreciated  by  the  teachers  of 
singing.  Almost  without  exception  they  seek  to 
supplement  the  mechanical  doctrines  by  instruc- 
tion of  an  entirely  different  character.  The 
subjects  included  in  this  form  of  instruction  are 
of  several  classes.  They  comprise  the  manner  of 
emission  of  the  tone,  the  traditional  precepts 
of  the  old  Italian  school,  the  singer's  sensations, 
and  the  use  of  certain  vowels  and  consonants  for 
special  purposes. 

67 


68  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

Emission  and  Forward  Placing 

Of  all  the  traditional  precepts,  the  one  most 
frequently  cited  in  theoretical  treatises  on  the 
voice  is,  '* Place  the  tone  forward."  For  this 
precept  it  is  generally  believed  that  a  satisfactory 
explanation  has  been  found  in  the  accepted  doc- 
trine of  tone  emission. 

The  characteristic  effect  of  perfect  singing 
known  as  the  * 'forward  tone"  is  thoroughly  well 
known  to  every  lover  of  singing.  In  some 
peculiar  way  the  tone,  when  perfectly  produced, 
seems  to  issue  directly  from  the  singer's  mouth. 
When  we  listen  to  a  poorly  trained  and  faulty 
singer  the  tones  seem  to  to  be  caught  somewhere 
in  the  singer's  throat.  We  feel  instinctively  that 
if  the  singer  could  only  lift  the  voice  off  the  throat, 
and  bring  it  forward  in  the  mouth,  the  tones  would 
be  greatly  improved  in  character.  It  is  commonly 
believed  that  the  old  masters  knew  some  way  in 
which  this  can  be  done.  Just  what  means  they 
used  for  this  purpose  is  not  known.  But  the 
accepted  scientific  interpretation  of  the  '*  for- 
ward tone"  precept  is  held  by  vocal  theorists  to 
render  the  subject  perfectly  clear. 


EMPIRICAL  MATERIALS  OF  MODERN  METHODS     69 

Sir  Morell  Mackenzie  states  the  correct  emis- 
sion of  the  tone  as  one  of  the  three  cardinal 
principles  of  the  vocal  action.  ''The  regulation 
of  the  force  of  the  blast  which  strikes-  against  the 
vocal  cords,  the  placing  of  these  in  the  most 
favourable  position  for  the  effect  which  it  is 
desired  to  produce,  and  the  direction  of  the 
vibrating  column  of  air  which  issues  from  the 
larynx  are  the  three  elements  of  artistic  produc- 
tion." (The  Hygiene  of  the  Vocal  Organs,  Lon- 
don, 1886.)  His  analysis  of  the  mechanical  and 
acoustic  processes  involved  in  emission  may  be 
cited  as  typical  of  the  views  of  the  great  majority 
of  vocal  scientists.  ''It  (the  column  of  sound) 
must  be  projected  against  the  roof  of  the  cavity 
behind  the  upper  front  teeth,  from  which  it 
rebounds  sharply  and  clearly  to  the  outside." 
Mme.  Seiler  expresses  the  idea  somewhat  differ- 
ently, but  the  meaning  is  about  the  same.  "A 
correct  disposition  of  the  tones  of  the  voice  con- 
sists in  causing  the  air,  brought  into  vibration  by 
the  vocal  ligaments,  to  rebound  from  immedi- 
ately above  the  front  teeth,  where  it  must  be 
concentrated  as  much  as  possible,  rebounding 
thence  to  form  in  the  mouth  continuous  vibra- 
tions."   {The  Voice  in  Singing,  Phila.,  1886.) 


70  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

To  the  vocal  theorists  this  is  no  doubt  thor- 
oughly convincing  and  satisfactory.  But  as  a 
topic  of  practical  instruction  in  singing  this 
theory  of  tone  emission  is  utterly  valueless.  How 
can  the  ^'column  of  vocalized  breath*'  be  volun- 
tarily directed  in  its  passage  through  the  pharynx 
and  mouth?  No  muscular  process  has  ever  been 
located,  by  which  the  singer  can  influence  the 
course  of  the  expired  breath,  and  direct  it  to  any 
specific  point  in  the  mouth.  Even  if  the  expired 
breath  does,  in  perfect  singing,  take  the  course 
described,  knowledge  of  this  fact  cannot  enable 
the  singer  to  bring  this  about.  The  accepted 
doctrine  of  tone  emission  is  of  no  benefit  what- 
ever to  the  teacher  of  singing.  He  knows  what 
the  **forward  tone''  is,  that  is,  what  it  sounds 
like,  just  as  well  no  doubt  as  did  the  old  Italian 
master.  But  if  the  latter  knew  how  to  enable  his 
pupils  to  obtain  the  *^ forward"  character  of  tone, 
the  modern  teacher  is  to  that  extent  not  so  well 
off. 

In  view  of  the  prevailing  ignorance  of  any 
means  for  securing  the  (supposedly)  correct 
emission  of  tone,  intelligible  instruction  on  this 
topic  is  hardly  to  be  expected.     But  the  great 


EMPIRICAL  MATERIALS  OF  MODERN  METHODS     71 

majority  of  teachers  lay  great  stress  on  the  need 
of  acquiring  the  correct  emission.  The  best  they 
can  do  is  to  explain  the  scientific  doctrine  to  their 
pupils;  the  students  are  generally  left  to  find  for 
themselves  some  way  of  applying  the  explanation. 
In  many  cases  the  master  tries  to  assist  the 
student  by  describing  the  singer's  sensations, 
experienced  when  producing  a  ^ ^forward"  tone. 
Certain  vowels  and  consonants  are  usually  held 
to  be  especially  favored  by  a  *  ^forward  position," 
and  exercises  on  these  are  very  widely  used  for 
securing  a  ^^forward''  tone.  These  exercises  are 
described  in  a  later  paragraph.  It  will  be 
noticed  however  that  this  use  of  vowels  is  not  an 
application  of  the  theory  of  ^^forward  emission." 
The  vowel  sounds  are  believed  to  owe  their  **for- 
ward  position"  to  resonance,  while  *' emission" 
is  purely  a  matter  of  direction  or  focusing  of 
the  breath-blast.  The  whole  subject  of  emission 
and  forward  placing  is  in  a  very  unsatisfactory 
condition. 

The  Traditional  Precepts  in  Modern  Instruction 

So  much  importance  is   attached  by  modem 
teachers  to  the  traditional  precepts  of  the   old 


72  THE   PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

school  that  this  subject  calls  for  somewhat  lengthy 
treatment.  Before  discussing  the  manner  in 
which  the  precepts  are  applied  in  practical 
instruction,  it  will  be  well  to  review  first  the 
interpretations  of  the  precepts  offered  by  differ- 
ent vocal  scientists. 

It  must  be  remarked,  in  the  first  place,  that  no 
single  one  of  the  precepts  has  ever  been  satis- 
factorily explained;  that  is,  no  direct  means  of 
performing  the  actions  indicated  by  the  precepts 
has  ever  been  found.  If  ever  the  precepts  had  a 
definite  meaning,  considered  as  specific  direc- 
tions for  performing  certain  actions  in  a  special 
way,  that  meaning  has  been  lost.  Mechanical 
analysis  has  not  reduced  the  precepts  to  a  form 
in  which  they  are  of  direct  value  to  the  modern 
teacher. 

That  the  * 'forward  tone"  is  interpreted  as  a 
reference  to  the  emission  of  the  voice  was  noted 
earlier  in  this  chapter.  The  explanation  of  the 
**open  throat"  precept  as  a  function  of  mouth- 
pharynx  resonance  has  also  been  mentioned. 

'* Singing  on  the  breath"  is  a  very  perplexing 
subject  for  vocal  theorists.  Many  authorities 
assert    that    this    precept    describes    an    effect 


EMPIEICAL  MATERIALS  OF  MODERN  METHODS     73" 

obtained  by  the  ^^ opposed  muscular  action" 
breath-control.  (See  citation  from  Shakespeare 
in  Chapter  II.)  But  this  explanation  is  hardly 
satisfactory;  if  the  precept  had  meant  no  more 
than  breath-control,  it  would  have  been  forgotten 
long  ago. 

The  ** support  of  the  tone''  is  mentioned  by  a 
large  number  of  theoretical  writers  on  the  voice. 
These  writers  generally  state,  in  substance,  that 
'Hhe  tone  must  be  supported  by  the  breathing 
muscles  of  the  chest,  and  not  by  the  throat 
muscles."  (See  The  Technics  of  Bel  Canto,  by 
a.  B.  Lamperti,  New  York,  1905.)  But  this 
explanation  is  hardly  to  be  considered  as  a  scien- 
tific doctrine.  Every  one  knows  that  a  tone  has 
no  weight,  so  in  the  physical  sense  it  can  need  no 
support.  In  short,  scientific  analysis  has  thrown 
no  more  light  on  this  than  any  other  of  the  old 
precepts. 

Notwithstanding  the  modern  teacher's  com- 
plete ignorance  of  the  mechanical  operations 
which  they  seem  to  indicate,  the  old  precepts 
form  a  very  important  feature  of  instruction  in 
singing.  The  great  majority  of  teachers  cite 
these  precepts  constantly,  and  frequently  direct 


74  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

their  pupils  to  **open  the  throat/'  to  ** bring  the 
tone  forward,"  etc.  Is  it  to  be  believed  that  an 
intelligent  master  would  use  these  directions  in 
any  occult  or  cabalistic  sense?  Such  a  statement 
is  occasionally  made  by  a  consistent  upholder  of 
the  mechanical  system  of  Voice  Culture.  Paulo 
Guetta,  for  example,  in  a  recent  exhaustive  work 
on  the  subject,  ridicules  the  use  of  the  old  pre- 
cepts. Says  this  ardent  advocate  of  mechanical 
instruction  in  singing: 

**  Nowadays  alchemy  and  necromancy  awaken 
nothing  but  curiosity.  How  then  can  one  who 
thinks  and  reasons  admit  that  an  art  can  be  cul- 
tivated and  sustained  by  theories  extravagant, 
fantastic,  enigmatic,  explained  and  condensed  in 
abstruse  phrases  and  sentences,  which  not  only 
have  no  meaning  whatever,  but  even  lead  one  to 
doubt  whether  the  teacher  himself  knows  what 
result  it  is  desired  to  obtain?  Do  you  wish  a  little 
example  ?    Behold ! 

**  *  Press  the  whole  voice  against  the  mask.' 
*  Place  the  voice  in  the  head.'  'The  voice  is 
directed  to  the  nasal  cavities.'  *  Place  the  voice 
forward. ' 


EMPIBICAL  MATERIALS  OF  MODERN  METHODS     75 

**  Others,  with  the  most  austere  gravity,  will  tell 
you  that  your  voice  is  too  far  back,  or  that  you 
send  the  voice  to  the  lower  teeth,  and  promise  in 
a  few  days  to  place  the  voice  forward,  at  the 
upper  teeth,  or  wherever  else  it  should  be."  {II 
Canto  nel  suo  Mecanismo,  Milan,  1902.) 

This  statement  is  by  no  means  justified.  The 
precepts  have  a  real  and  definite  meaning  for  the 
vocal  teacher.  Any  one  familiar  with  the  highest 
type  of  artistic  singing  must  have  observed  that 
the  singer's  'Hhroat  seems  to  be  open";  the 
tones  impress  the  hearer  as  being  in  some  way 
'^forward  in  the  singer's  mouth,"  and  not  at  the 
vocal  cords;  the  voice  ** seems  to  be  supported" 
somewhere;  the  tones  float  out  freely  on  the 
breath.  A  harsh  and  badly  produced  voice  seems 
to  be  held  in  the  singer's  throat  by  main  force. 
The  critical  hearer  feels  instinctively  that  such 
a  singer's  voice  would  be  greatly  improved  if  the 
tones  could  only  be  supported  in  a  forward  posi- 
tion in  the  mouth,  and  kept  from  slipping  back 
into  the  throat.  It  seems  that  this  would  relieve 
the  throat  of  the  strain  of  holding  the  tone;  the 
throat  would  then  be  open,  and  the  voice  would 
float  out  freely  on  the  breath. 


76  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

In  short,  the  traditional  precepts  describe 
accurately  the  most  striking  points  of  difference 
between  perfect  singing  and  bad  singing,  so  far 
as  the  effect  on  the  listener  is  concerned.  Mod- 
ern teachers  are  thoroughly  familiar  with  the 
highest  standards  of  the  vocal  art;  they  fully 
appreciate  how  well  the  precepts  describe  the 
perfection  of  singing.  Through  long  continued 
listening  to  voices,  the  precepts  come  to  have  a 
very  real  meaning.  It  is  inevitable  therefore  that 
the  teacher  should  try  to  impart  to  the  pupil  this 
intimate  feeling  for  the  voice.  True,  this  acquaint- 
ance with  the  voice  is  purely  empirical;  as  has 
just  been  remarked,  no  mechanical  analysis  of 
this  empirical  knowledge  has  ever  been  success- 
fully made.  The  modern  teacher's  apprehension 
of  the  meaning  of  the  precepts  is  only  very 
vaguely  connected  with  a  supposed  insight  into 
the  mechanical  processes  of  tone-production. 

Yet  there  is  nothing  vague  about  the  impres- 
sion made  on  the  teacher  in  listening  to  his 
pupils.  On  the  contrary,  every  faulty  tone 
impresses  the  teacher  very  keenly  and  definitely 
as  being  too  far  back,  or  as  caught  in  the  throat, 
or  as  falling  back  for  lack  of  support,  etc.    How 


EMPIRICAL  MATERIALS  OF  MODERN  METHODS     77 

could  it  be  expected  then,  that  the  teacher  should 
refrain  from  telling  the  pupil  to  correct  the 
faulty  production,  in  the  manner  so  clearly  and 
directly  indicated  by  the  tones? 

But  this  direct  application  of  the  precepts 
is  of  absolutely  no  value  in  instruction,  because 
of  the  teacher's  ignorance  of  the  mechanical 
processes  supposedly  involved.  There  is  after 
all  some  justification  for  Guetta's  criticism  of 
empirical  instruction.  It  is  all  very  well  for  the 
teacher  to  feel  that  the  pupil's  voice  is  gripped 
in  the  throat,  and  to  bid  him  **open  your  throat." 
The  pupil  may  strive  ever  so  earnestly  to  open 
his  throat,  but  he  does  not  know  how,  and  the 
teacher  is  utterly  unable  to  tell  him. 

All  instruction  based  on  the  empirical  precepts 
is  thus  seen  to  be  extremely  unsatisfactory. 
While  the  precepts  convey  a  very  valuable  mean- 
ing to  the  teacher,  no  way  has  ever  been  found 
for  translating  this  meaning  into  rules  for  the 
mechanical  management  of  the  vocal  organs.  Ee- 
course  is  had,  to  some  extent,  to  a  description  of 
the  singer's  sensations;  exercises  on  special 
vowels  and  consonants  are  also  much  used,  for 
imparting  the  ideas  embodied  in  the  precepts. 
Both  of  these  topics  are  now  to  be  considered. 


78  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

The  Singer^ s  Sensations 

The  correct  use  of  the  voice  awakens  in  the 
singer  a  variety  of  sensations  generally  held  to 
be  different  from  those  accompanying  any  in- 
correct vocal  action. 

One  important  fact  must  first  be  noted  regard- 
ing the  manner  in  which  the  singer's  sensations 
are  described  by  various  authorities.  The  use  of 
the  voice  awakens  a  wide  variety  of  local  sensa- 
tions, which  bear  no  necessary  relation  to  each 
other.  A  singer  may,  at  will,  pay  entire  atten- 
tion to  any  one,  or  to  any  particular  set,  of  these 
sensations,  and  for  the  time  being  completely 
ignore  all  the  others. 

Physiogically  considered,  the  singer's  sensa- 
tions are  of  two  classes, — first,  muscular  sensa- 
tions strictly  speaking;  and  second,  a  sense  of 
tingling  or  vibration,  definitely  located  usually 
about  the  breast  bone,  and  in  the  front  and  upper 
part  of  the  head. 

Muscular  Sensations  of  Singing 

It  is  very  difficult  to  analyze  and  describe 
exactly  the  muscular  sensations  which  accompany 
any  complex  action.    Swimming,  diving,  dancing. 


EMPIRICAL  MATERIALS  OF  MODERN  METHODS     79 

skating,^ — each  awakens  a  set  of  extremely  vivid 
muscular  feelings;  yet  to  describe  these  sensa- 
tions so  graphically  that  they  could  be  felt  in 
imagination  by  one  who  had  never  experienced 
them  actually, — that  would  be  almost  impossible. 

This  peculiar  aspect  of  muscular  sensations  is 
particularly  true  as  regards  the  action  of  singing. 
While  every  vocal  teacher  knows  exactly  how  it 
feels  to  sing  properly,  all  descriptions  of  the 
singer's  muscular  sensations  are  extremely 
vague.  But  the  vividness  of  these  sensations 
keeps  them  constantly  before  the  teacher's  mind, 
and  some  application  of  them,  in  the  present  state 
of  Voice  Culture,  is  almost  inevitable. 

The  basic  sensation  of  correct  singing,  as  gen- 
erally described,  is  a  feeling  of  perfect  poise  and  ( 
harmony  of  the  whole  body;  this  is  accompanied 
by  a  sense  of  freedom  about  the  throat  and  jaw, 
and  firm  grasp  and  control  of  the  expiratory 
muscles.  Attempts  are  frequently  made  to 
amplify  this  description,  but  the  results  are 
always  very  vague.  A  feeling  of  '*  absence  of 
local  effort"  at  the  throat  is  much  spoken  of,  or 
"perfect  relaxation  of  the  vocal  muscles." 


80  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

A  few  specially  localized  muscular  sensations 
are  also  much  discussed.  Descriptions  of  this 
class  however  are  often  so  loosely  given  as  to 
render  a  definite  statement  almost  impossible. 
Most  frequently  mentioned  are  the  feeling  of 
** backward  pressure  in  the  throat/'  and  of 
** drinking  in  the  tone,"  instead  of  sending  it  out. 
Then  again,  the  **tone  must  be  felt  at  the  upper 
front  teeth."  A  feeling  as  of  an  *^ expanded  and 
flexible  vocal  tube,  extending  from  the  base  of 
the  lungs  to  the  lips,"  is  also  much  talked  of. 
*'Feel  that  you  grow  bigger  as  the  tone  swells" 
is  about  as  intelligible  as  the  feeling  of  '^floating 
jaw." 

On  the  whole,  the  subject  of  the  singer's  muscu- 
lar sensations  is  usually  rather  mystifying  to  the 
student. 

Sensations  of  Tingling  or  Vibration 

Descriptions  of  sensations  of  this  class  are 
much  more  coherent  than  those  just  considered. 
A  definite  location  is  given  to  the  feelings,  in  the 
chest  and  in  the  head. 

A  feeling  of  trembling  in  the  upper  chest  is 
usually  held  to  indicate  that  the  chest  cavity  is 


EMPIEICAL  MATERIALS  OF  MODERN  METHODS     81 

\vorking  properly  as  a  resonator.  This  sensa- 
tion is  therefore  the  chief  reliance  of  most  teach- 
ers in  '* placing"  the  lower  tones,  especially  for 
low  voices.  Sensations  in  the  nasal  cavities  and 
head  are  utilized  for  acquiring  control  of  nasal 
resonance,  for  placing  the  upper  notes  of  the 
voice,  and  for  ** bringing  the  voice  forward." 
Exercises  for  control  of  both  cavities,  on  special 
vowels  and  consonants,  combine  the  two  topics, 
** vowel  position"  and  sensation. 

Singing  in  the  Mash 

In  recent  years  a  method  of  instruction  has 
been  developed  in  France,  which  is  commonly 
called  by  its  advocates  *^ singing  in  the  mask." 
The  basic  idea  of  this  method  is  that  the  singer 
must  imagine  his  face  to  be  covered  by  a  mask, 
and  must  **sing  into  this  mask."  This  idea  may 
seem  rather  vague  at  first;  but  a  few  trials  will 
show  how  easy  it  is  for  the  singer  to  persuade 
himself  that  he  projects  his  voice  into  his  face. 

This  method  goes  to  the  extreme  in  utilizing 
the  sensations  of  vibration  in  the  nose  and  fore- 
head. These  sensations  are  analyzed,  localized, 
and  described,  down  to  the  most  minute  detail. 


82  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

While  other  topics  of  instruction  are  included, — 
breathing,  registers,  position  of  tongue,  larynx, 
palate,  etc.,  everything  else  is  subordinated  to 
nasal  resonance.  ** Singing  in  the  mask'*  is  of 
course  a  purely  empirical  method,  and  little  has 
been  attempted  in  the  way  of  justifying  it  on 
scientific  principles. 

All  instruction  based  on  the  singer's  sensa- 
tions is  purely  empirical,  in  the  meaning  ordina- 
rily attached  to  this  word  in  treatises  on  Vocal 
Science.  Theoretical  works  on  the  voice  seldom 
touch  on  the  subject  of  sensations,  nor  do  the 
vocal  teachers  generally  make  this  subject  promi- 
nent when  speaking  of  their  methods.* 

Sensations  occupy  a  rather  peculiar  position 
in  modern  methods.  They  are  a  distinctly  sub- 
sidiary element  of  instruction  and  are  seldom 
raised  to  the  dignity  accorded  to  the  mechani- 
cal doctrines  of  vocal  management.  The  use  of 
the  singer's  sensations,  as  applied  in  practical 
instruction,  is  almost  exclusively  interpretive.    In 

*  An  exception  to  this  statement  is  seen  in  the  recently  pub- 
lished book  of  Mme.  Lilli  Lehmann,  Meine  Gesangskunst,  Berlin, 
1902.  This  famous  artist  and  teacher  devotes  by  far  the  greater 
part  of  her  book  to  a  minute  analysis  and  description  of  the 
singer's  sensations 


EMPIEICAL  MATERIALS  OF  MODERN  METHODS     83 

tlie  mechanical  sense  the  traditional  precepts 
have  no  meaning  whatever;  this  is  also  true  of 
several  of  the  accepted  doctrines  of  Vocal  Science. 
For  example,  the  precept  ** Support  the  tone,"  is 
absolutely  meaningless  as  a  principle  of  mechan- 
ical vocal  action.  But,  when  interpreted  as 
referring  to  a  set  of  sensations  experienced  by 
the  singer,  this  precept  takes  on  a  very  definite 
meaning.  Nobody  knows  what  the  support  of  the 
tone  is,  but  every  vocal  teacher  knows  how  it  ^y 
feels.  In  the  same  way,  no  means  is  known  for 
directly  throwing  the  air  in  the  nasal  cavities  into 
vibration.  But  the  sensation  in  the  front  of  the 
head,  which  indicates,  presumably,  the  proper 
action  of  nasal  resonance,  is  familiar  to  all  teach- 
ers. Most  of  the  positive  materials  of  modern 
methods  are  thus  interpreted  in  terms  of  sensa- 
tions. 

True,  the  accepted  theory  of  Vocal  Science  does 
not  directly  countenance  this  interpretation. 
The  basic  principle  of  modern  Voice  Culture  is 
the  idea  of  mechanical  vocal  management.  All 
instruction  is  supposed  to  aim  at  direct,  con- 
scious, and  voluntary  control  of  the  muscular 
operations  of  singing.    Teachers  always  impart  to 


84  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF   SINGING 

their  pupils  this  idea  of  the  mechanical  control  of 
the  voice.  The  vocal  action  is  always  considered 
from  the  mechanical  side.  Even  those  expressions 
whose  mechanical  meaning  is  vague  or  unscientific 
are  yet  used  as  referring  definitely  to  muscular 
actions.  The  conscious  thought  of  the  teacher  is 
always  turned  to  the  mechanical  idea  supposedly 
conveyed  by  scientific  doctrine  and  empirical  pre- 
cept. The  translation  of  this  idea  into  a  descrip- 
tion of  sensations  is  almost  always  the  result  of 
a  sub-conscious  mental  process. 

It  therefore  follows  that  in  practical  instruc- 
tion the  appeal  to  sensations  is  more  often  indi- 
rect than  direct.  For  example,  when  a  student's 
tones  are  caught  in  the  throat,  the  master  says 
explicitly, — *^Free  the  tone  by  opening  your 
throat."  The  master  explains  the  (supposed) 
wrong  vocal  action,  and  describes  how  the  tone 
should  be  produced.  Incidentally,  the  master 
may  also  tell  how  and  where  the  tone  should  be 
felt. 

There  is  also  a  great  deal  of  instruction  based 
frankly  and  directly  on  the  singer's  sensations. 
Instruction  of  this  type  usually  takes  the  form  of 
special   exercises  on  certain  vowels   and  conso- 


EMPIEICAL  MATEEIALS  OF  MODEEN  METHODS     85 

nants,  which  are  believed  to  be  peculiarly  suited 
for  imparting  command  of  particular  features  of 
the  correct  vocal  action.  The  topics  generally- 
covered  are  chest  resonance,  nasal  resonance, 
open  throat,  and  forward  placing  of  the  tone. 
This  form  of  instruction  is  held  to  be  referable  in 
some  way  to  scientific  principles.  The  laws  of 
vowel  and  consonant  formation  formulated  by 
Helmholtz  are  often  cited  in  proof  of  the  efficacy 
of  exercises  of  this  type.  There  is  also  much  dis- 
cussion of  the  ** location''  of  the  tone.  But  there 
is  little  justification  for  the  statement  that  instruc- 
tion based  on  the  singer's  sensations  is  scientific 
in  character.  A  misconception  of  acoustic  prin- 
ciples is  evidenced  by  most  of  the  statements 
made  concerning  the  use  of  special  vowels  and 
consonants  in  securing  the  correct  vocal  action. 
The  exercises  which  aim  to  utilize  the  singer's 
sensations  in  producing  particular  vowels  and 
consonants  are  now  to  be  described. 

Exercises  on  Special  Vowels  and  Consonants 

Of  the  rules  concerning  the  use  of  special 
vowels,  probably  the  most  important  is  that  a  (as 
in  far)  is  the  most  favorable  vowel  for  the  general 


86  THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   SINGING 

purposes  of  voice  training.  Teachers  generally 
have  their  pupils  sing  most  of  their  exercises  on 
this  vowel.  Much  attention  is  paid  to  the  exact 
pronunciation  of  the  vowel,  and  fine  distinctions 
are  drawn  between  its  various  sounds  in  Italian, 
French,  German,  and  English.  The  preference 
for  the  Italian  pronunciation  is  very  general.  It 
is  claimed  for  this  sound  that  it  helps  materially 
in  acquiring  command  of  the  ''open  throat,"  In- 
deed, a  peculiar  virtue  in  this  regard  is  ascribed 
to  the  Italian  vowels  generally.  No  convincing 
reason  has  ever  been  given  for  this  belief.  But 
the  usual  custom  is  to  ''place  the  voice"  on  the 
Italian  a,  and  then  to>  take  up,  one  at  a  time,  the 
other  Italian  vowels. 

The  labial  consonants,  p,  h,  t,  d,  are  believed  to 
have  a  peculiar  influence  in  securing  the  "for- 
ward position"  of  the  tone.  Much  the  same 
influence  is  also  ascribed  to  the  vowel  oo,  although 
many  authorities  consider  i  (Italian)  the  "most 
forward"  vowel.  Exercises  combining  these  con- 
sonants and  vowels  are  very  widely  used,  on 
single  tones,  and  on  groups  of  three,  four,  or  ^ve 
notes.  The  syllables  hoo,  poo,  too,  doo  are  prac- 
tised, or  if  the  teacher  hold  to  the  other  "for- 


EMPIEICAL  MATEEIALS  OF  MODEEN  METHODS     87 

ward'*  vowel,  hee,  pee,  tee,  dee;  the  student  is 
instructed  to  hold  the  vowel  in  the  '^forward 
position"  secured  by  the  initial  consonant.  Later 
on,  the  '^forward"  vowel  is  gradually  widened 
into  the  other  vowels;  exercises  are  sung  on 
hoo-dh,  doo-ah,  etc.  This  form  of  instruction  is 
capable  of  great  elaboration.  Many  teachers  use 
a  wide  variety  of  combinations  of  these  vowels 
and  consonants;  but  as  the  basic  idea  is  always 
the  same,  this  class  of  exercises  calls  for  no 
further  description.  The  singer's  sensations, 
notably  those  of  ^'open  throat,"  ** expanded  vocal 
tube,"  '^forward  tone,"  and  vibration  in  the 
chest,  are  generally  brought  to  the  pupil's  at- 
tention in  this  form  of  exercise. 

Another  set  of  sounds  are  held  to  be  specially 
adapted  for  securing  the  use  of  nasal  resonance. 
These  are  the  letters  m,  n,  and  ng,  when  used  for 
starting  a  tone,  and  also  the  vowel  i  (Italian). 
The  exercises  used  are  similar  in  character  to 
those  just  described.  In  singing  these  exercises, 
the  student  is  supposed  to  ''start  the  tone  high  up 
in  the  head  on  the  initial  m  or  n,  and  to  hold  it 
there,  while  gradually  and  smoothly  opening  the 
mouth  for  the  vowel,"  etc.    The  sensations  spe- 


88  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

cially  noticed  in  this  type  of  exercise  are  the 
feelings  of  vibration  in  the  nose  and  forehead. 
The  ^'forward  tone/'  as  well  as  the  nasal  reso- 
nance, is  supposed  to  be  favored  by  the  practice 
of  these  exercises. 

Enunciation 

Vocal  teachers  always  recognize  the  importance 
of  a  clear  delivery  of  the  text  in  singing.  Correct 
enunciation  is  therefore  considered  in  all  meth- 
ods. A  few  teachers  believe  that  a  clear  pronun- 
ciation helps  greatly  to  establish  the  correct  vocal 
action.  Some  even  go  so  far  as  to  say  that  a  clear 
delivery  of  the  words  will  of  itself  insure  a  cor- 
rect tone-production.  But  this  theory  calls  for 
only  passing  comment.  One  has  but  to  turn  to 
the  vaudeville  stage  to  see  its  falsity.  For  singers 
of  that  class,  the  words  are  of  the  utmost 
importance,  while  the  tone-production  is  usually 
of  the  very  worst. 

A  few  teachers  base  their  methods  on  the  theory 
that  correct  tone-production  results  necessarily 
from  the  singing  of  **pure  vowels."  This  is  no 
doubt  interesting,  but  still  far  from  convincing. 
The  problem  of  tone-production  is  not  solved 
quite  so  simply. 


EMPIEICAL  MATEEIALS  OF  MODERN  METHODS     89 

As  a  rule,  vocal  teachers  consider  the  subject 
of  pronunciation  as  quite  distinct  from  tone-pro- 
duction. Methods  differ  with  regard  to  the  use 
of  exercises  in  articulation,  and  to  the  stage  of 
progress  at  which  these  exercises  are  taken  up. 
Some  teachers  insist  on  their  pupils  practising 
singing  for  months  on  the  vowels,  before  permit- 
ting them  to  sing  even  the  simplest  songs  with 
words.  Others  have  the  pupils  sing  words  from 
the  beginning  of  instruction.  As  a  rule,  teachers 
begin  to  give  songs,  and  vocalises  with  words, 
very  early  in  the  course. 

Throat  Stiffness  and  Relaxing  Exercises 

Teachers  of  singing  generally  recognize  that 
any  stiffening  of  the  throat  interferes  with  the 
correct  action  of  the  voice.  Yet  for  some  strange 
reason  vocal  students  are  very  much  inclined  to 
form  habits  of  throat  stiffness.  This  constantly^ 
happens,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  teachers  con- 
tinually warn  their  pupils  against  the  tendency 
to  stiffen.  On  this  account,  exercises  for  relaxing 
the  throat  are  an  important  feature  of  modern 
instruction  in  singing. 

Naturally,  relaxing  exercises  are  not  thought  to 


90  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

have  any  direct  bearing  in  bringing  about  the  cor- 
rect vocal  action.  They  are  purely  preparatory; 
their  purpose  is  only  to  bring  the  vocal  organs  into 
the  right  condition  for  constructive  training.  For 
this  reason,  the  means  used  for  relaxing  the 
throat  are  seldom  mentioned  among  the  materials 
of  instruction.  But  almost  every  vocal  teacher  is 
obliged  to  make  frequent  use  of  throat  relaxing 
exercises.  Indeed,  throat  stiffness  is  one  of  the 
most  serious  difficulties  of  modern  Voice  Culture. 
A  student  frequently  seems  to  be  making  good 
progress,  and  then  without  much  warning  falls 
into  a  condition  of  throat  stiffness  so  serious  as 
to  undo  for  a  time  the  good  work  of  several 
months'  study.  In  such  a  case  there  is  nothing 
for  the  teacher  to  do  but  to  drop  the  progres- 
sive work,  and  devote  a  few  lessons  to  relaxing 
exercises. 

Little  difficulty  is  usually  found  in  relaxing  the 
throat,  when  once  the  necessity  becomes  strikingly 
apparent.  That  is,  provided  progressive  study 
is  dropped  for  a  time,  and  attention  paid  solely 
to  relaxing  exercises.  But  such  cases  are  com- 
paratively rare.  A  much  more  constant  source 
of  trouble  is  found  in  the  prevailing  tendency  of 


EMPIRICAL  MATERIALS  OF  MODERN  METHODS     91 

vocal  students  to  stiffen  their  throats,  just 
enough  to  interfere  with  the  (supposed)  appli- 
cation of  the  teacher's  method. 

The  exercises  used  for  relaxing  the  throat  are 
fairly  simple,  both  in  character  and  scope.  They 
consist  mainly  of  toneless  yawning,  of  single 
tones  ** yawned  out*'  on  a  free  exhalation,  and  of 
descending  scale  passages  of  the  same  type. 
Although  seldom  recognized  as  a  coordinate 
topic  of  instruction,  exercises  of  this  character 
are  usually  interspersed  among  the  other  materi- 
als of  vocal  methods. 


CHAPTER  VI 

A  GENEEAL  VIEW  OF  MODEEN  VOICE  CULTUEE 

All  the  materials  of  modern  methods  have  now 
been  described.  The  subject  next  to  be  con- 
sidered is  the  manner  in  which  these  materials 
are  utilized  in  practical  instruction.  In  other 
words,  what  is  a  method  of  Voice  Culture? 

In  the  present  state  of  Vocal  Science,  the  sub- 
ject of  tone-production  overshadows  everything 
else  in  difficulty.  When  once  the  correct  vocal 
action  has  been  acquired,  the  student's  progress 
is  assured.  Every  other  feature  of  the  singer's 
education  is  simply  a  matter  of  time  and  applica- 
tion. But,  under  present  conditions,  the  acquire- 
ment of  the  correct  vocal  action  is  extremely 
uncertain.  On  account  of  its  fundamental  impor- 
tance, and  more  especially  of  its  difficulty,  the 
subject  of  tone-production  is  the  most  prominent 
topic  of  instruction  in  singing.  The  term 
** method"  is  therefore  applied  solely  to  the  means 
used  for  imparting  the  correct  vocal  action. 


GENEEAL  VIEW  OF  MODEEN  VOICE  CULTUEE      93 

This  use  of  the  word  is  in  accordance  with  the 
accepted  theory  of  Voice  Culture.  The  general 
belief  is  that  tone-production  is  entirely  distinct 
from  vocal  technique.  /Technical  studies  cannot 
profitably  be  undertaken,  according  to  the  pre- 
vailing idea,  until  the  correct  management  of  the 
vocal  organs  has  been  established^  This  idea  is 
supposed  to  be  followed  out  in  modern  instruc- 
tion. It  is  generally  assumed  that  the  voice  is 
brought  under  control  through  a  definite  series  of 
exercises ;  these  exercises  are  supposed  to  follow, 
one  after  the  other,  according  to  a  well-defined  ^^ 
system.  The  term  ** method"  implies  this  sys- 
tematic arrangement  of  exercises.  It  indicates 
that  vocal  training  is  a  matter  of  precise  knowl- 
edge and  orderly  progression. 

This  represents  the  accepted  ideal  of  Voice 
Culture,  rather  than  the  actual  condition.  The 
idea  that  the  vocal  management  should  be  im- 
parted specially,  as  something  preliminary  to  the  *^ 
technical  training  of  the  voice,  is  not  carried  out 
in  practice.  Teachers  generally  are  striving  to 
bring  their  systems  into  conformity  with  this 
ideal  standard.  They  use  the  expression,  **  plac- 
ing   the    voice,''    to    describe    the    preliminary 


( 


94  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

training  in  tone-production.  But  no  successful 
system  of  this  type  has  ever  been  evolved.  The 
correct  management  of  the  voice  never  is  imparted 
in  the  manner  indicated  by  this  ideal  of  instruc- 
tion. Tone-production  continues,  throughout  the 
entire  course  of  study,  to  be  the  most  important 
topic  of  instruction. 

In  order  to  understand  the  nature  of  a  method 
of  Voice  Culture,  it  is  necessary  first  to  consider 
the  relation  which  exists,  in  modern  instruction, 
between  training  in  tone-production,  and  the 
development  of  vocal  technique.  According  to 
the  accepted  theory,  the  voice  must  be  ** placed" 
before  the  real  study  of  singing  is  undertaken. 
After  the  voice  has  been  properly  ^^ placed,''  it  is 
supposed  to  be  in  condition  to  be  developed  by 
practice  in  singing  technical  exercises.  But  in 
actual  practice  this  distinction  between  **  voice- 
placing"  exercises  and  technical  studies  is  seldom 
drawn.  The  voice  is  trained,  almost  from  the  be- 
ginning of  the  course  of  study,  by  practice  in 
actual  singing..  The  earliest  exercises  used  for 
'* placing  the  voice"  are  in  every  respect  technical 
studies, — single  tones  and  syllables,  scale  pas- 
sages, arpeggios,  etc.    It  is  impossible  to  produce 


GENEEAL  VIEW  OF  MODEEN  VOICE  CULTUEE       95 

even  a  single  tone  without  embodying  some  fea- 
ture of  technique.  Practice  therefore  serves  a 
double  purpose;  it  brings  the  voice  gradually  to 
the  condition  of  perfect  action,  and  at  the  same 
time  it  develops  the  technique.  The  student  ad- 
vances gradually  toward  the  correct  manner  of 
tone-production,  and  this  progress  is  evidenced 
solely  by  the  improved  technical  use  of  the  voice. 
Considerable  technical  facility  is  attained  before 
the  tone-production  becomes  absolutely  perfect. 

A  vocal  student's  practice  in  singing  is  not 
confined  to  technical  exercises,  strictly  speaking. 
Vocalises,  songs,  and  arias  are  taken  up,  usually 
very  early  in  the  course  of  study.  Moreover, 
attention  is  nearly  always  paid  to  musical  expres- 
sion and  to  artistic  rendition,  as  well  as  to  the 
vocal  action  and  the  technical  use  of  the  voice. 
This  is  true,  whether  the  student  sings  an  exer- 
cise, a  vocalise,  a  song,  or  an  aria. 

For  daily  home  practice,  the  student  sings, 
usually,  first  some  exercises,  then  a  few  vocalises, 
and  finally  several  songs  and  arias.  Every 
teacher  has  at  command  a  wide  range  of  compo- 
sitions of  all  these  kinds,  carefully  graded  as  to 
technical  and  musical  difiiculty.     As   the  pupil 


96  THE   PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

advances,  more  and  more  difficult  works  are 
undertaken.  For  each  stage  of  advancement  the 
teacher  chooses  the  compositions  best  adapted  to 
carry  the  student's  progress  still  further. 

There  is  no  point  in  this  development  at  which 
instruction  in  tone-production  ceases,  and  the 
technical  training  of  the  voice  is  begun.  On  the 
contrary,  the  means  used  for  imparting  the  cor- 
rect vocal  action  are  interspersed  with  the  other 
materials  of  instruction,  both  technical  and  artis- 
tic, throughout  the  entire  course  of  study.  More- 
over, the  training  in  tone-production  is  carried 
on  during  the  singing  of  the  compositions  just 
described,  as  well  as  by  practice  on  *^  voice-plac- 
ing'' exercises  strictly  speaking. 

^A  method  of  instruction  in  singing  therefore 
consists  primarily  of  a  set  of  mechanical  rules 
and  directions  for  managing  the  voice,  and 
secondarily  of  a  series  of  exercises,  both  toneless 
and  vocal,  so  designed  that  the  student  may 
directly  apply  in  practising  them  the  rules  and 
directions  for  vocal  managementA  It  must  not  be 
understood  however  that  the  mechanical  rules  are 
applied  only  to  the  exercises  specially  designed 
for  this  purpose.    These  rules  and  directions  are 


GENEEAL  VIEW  OF  MODERN  VOICE  CULTURE      97 

also  intended  to  be  applied  to  everything  the 
student  sings, — exercises,  technical  studies,  and 
musical  compositionsA 

It  will  be  recalled  that  the  review  of  the  topics 
of  modern  vocal  instruction  covered  three  dis- 
tinct types  of  materials.  First,  the  purely 
mechanical  doctrines,  commonly  regarded  as  the 
only  strictly  scientific  principles  of  Voice  Culture. 
These  are,  the  rules  for  the  management  of  the 
breath,  of  the  registers,  of  laryngeal  action,  and 
of  the  resonance  cavities,  and  also  the  directions 
for  attacking  the  tone,  and  for  forward  emissioi^ 
The  second  class  of  materials  is  held  by  strict 
adherents  of  the  scientific  idea  to  be  purely 
empirical;  this  class  includes  the  traditional  pre- 
cepts of  the  old  Italian  school,  and  also  all  the 
topics  of  instruction  based  on  the  singer's  sensa- 
tions. A  third  class  of  materials  is  found  in  the 
attempts  to  interpret  the  empirical  doctrines  in 
the  light  of  the  scientific  analysis  of  the  vocal 
action. 

To  enumerate  and  classify  all  the  methods  of 
instruction  in  vogue  would  be  almost  an  impos- 
sibility. Absolutely  no  uniformity  can  be  found 
on  any  topic.    Even  among  the  accepted  doctrines 


98  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

of  Vocal  Science  there  are  many  controverted 
points.  Five  distinct  schools  of  breathing  are 
represented,  two  of  breath-control.  Of  well 
worked-ont  systems  of  registers,  at  least  twenty 
could  be  enumerated.  Fully  this  number  of 
theories  are  offered  regarding  the  correct  posi- 
tions of  the  larynx,  soft  palate,  and  tongue.  Two 
opposed  theories  are  held  as  to  nasal  resonance. 
Further,  the  empirical  doctrines  are  always 
stated  so  loosely  that  no  real  unanimity  of  view 
can  be  found  on  any  one  of  them. 

Every  vocal  teacher  selects  the  materials  of 
instruction  from  these  controverted  doctrines,  but 
neither  rule  nor  reason  determines  what  materi- 
als shall  be  embodied  in  any  one  method.  There 
is  no  coherence  whatever  in  the  matter.  Further, 
there  is  no  agreement  as  to  which  topics  of  in- 
struction are  most  important.  One  teacher  may 
emphasize  breath-control  and  support  of  tone  as 
the  foundations  of  the  correct  vocal  action, 
another  may  give  this  position  to  nasal  resonance 
and  forward  placing.  Yet  both  these  teachers 
may  include  in  their  methods  about  the  same 
topics.  The  methods  seem  entirely  different,  only 
because  each  makes  some  one  or  two  doctrines  the 


GENEEAL  VIEW  OF  MODEEN  VOICE  CULTUEE       99 

most  important.  In  short,  it  miglit  almost  be 
said  that  there  are  as  many  methods  as  teachers. 

Three  fairly  distinct  types  of  method  may  be 
defined,  depending  on  the  class  of  materials 
adopted.  At  one  extreme  are  found  those  teach- 
ers who  attempt  to  follow  strictly  the  scientific 
principles.  These  teachers  generally  profess  to 
employ  only  the  purely  mechanical  doctrines  of 
Vocal  Science,  and  to  ignore  all  empirical  inter- 
pretations of  these  doctrines.  They  generally 
devote  a  portion  of  every  lesson  to  toneless  mus- 
cular drills,  and  insist  that  their  pupils  practise 
every  exercise  in  singing,  with  special  attention 
to  the  throat  action.  These  teachers  attempt  to 
follow  a  definite  plan  and  order  in  the  giving  of 
exercises  and  rules.  This  systematic  arrange- 
ment of  instruction  is,  however,  seldom  followed 
out  consistently  with  any  one  student.  An  im- 
portant reason  for  this  is  considered  in  Chapter  I 
of  Part  II. 

A  very  different  type  of  method  is  taught  by 
many  teachers  who  pay  special  attention  to  the 
empirical  topics  of  instruction.  Of  course  no 
teacher  professes  to  teach  empirically;  on  the 
contrary,   every  method   is   called   scientific,   no 


100  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

matter  what  materials  it  embodies.  Indeed,  a 
very  little  attention  paid  to  breathing,  attack, 
registers,  and  nasal  resonance,  is  enough  to 
relieve  any  teacher  of  the  reproach  of  empiricism. 
[The  teachers  now  being  considered  tonch  to  some 
extent  on  these  topics ;  bnt  most  of  their  instruc- 
tion is  based  on  the  traditional  precepts,  the 
singer's  sensations,  and  the  special  vowel  and 
consonant  drills?^  In  the  first  few  lessons  of  the 
course  they  usually  give  some  special  breathing 
exercises,  but  almost  always  ignore  breath-control. 
Not  much  is  done  for  vocal  control  in  the  strictly 
muscular  sense.  Special  'Voice-placing''  exer- 
cises are  not  used  to  any  such  extent  as  in  the 
strictly  scientific  methods  just  described,  the 
voice-placing  work  being  usually  done  on  vocalises, 
songs,  and  arias.  No  system  whatever  is  fol- 
lowed, or  even  attempted,  in  the  sequence  of 
topics  touched  upon.  The  directions,  **  Breathe 
deeper  on  that  phrase,"  *' Bring  that  tone  more 
forward, "  '  *  Open  your  throat  for  that  aT^/ '  ''  Feel 
that  tone  higher  up  in  the  head,"  may  follow  one 
after  the  other  within  five  minutes  of  instruction. 
Teachers  of  this  type  are  frequently  charged, 
by  the  strict  advocates  of  mechanical  instruction, 


GENEEAL  VIEW  OF  MODEBN  VOICE  CUlitllftE     101' 

with  a  practice  commonly  known  as  **  wearing  the 
voice  into  place.''  This  expression  is  nsed  to 
indicate  the  total  abandonment  of  system  in 
imparting  the  correct  vocal  action.  It  means  that 
the  teacher  simply  has  the  pnpil  sing  at  random, 
trusting  to  chance,  or  to  some  vague  intuitive 
process,  to  bring  about  the  correct  use  of  the 
voice.  To  the  vocal  scientist,  **  wearing  the  voice 
into  place"  represents  the  depth  of  empiricism. 
^The  great  majority  of  teachers  occupy  a  middle 
ground  between  the  two  types  just  described. 
Teachers  of  this  class  touch,  more  or  less,  on 
every  topic  of  instruction,  mechanical,  empirical, 
and  interpretive.  Their  application  of  most  of 
the  topics  of  instruction  is  not  quite  so  mechani- 
cal as  in  the  first  type  of  method  considered.  The 
student's  attention  is  always  directed  to  the  vocal 
organs,  but  the  idea  of  direct  muscular  control  is 
not  so  consistently  put  forward.  As  a  rule,  the 
attempt  is  made  in  the  first  stages  of  instruction 
to  follow  a  systematic  plan.  Breathing,  and  per- 
haps breath-control,  are  first  taught  as  muscular 
drills,  and  then  applied  on  single  tones.  Attack 
is  generally  taken  up  next,  then  simple  exercises 
in  the  medium  register.    Following  this,  the  chest 


102  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

and  head  registers  are  placed,  and  the  attention 
is  turned  to  emission  and  resonance.  But  in  most 
cases,  when  the  pupil  has  covered  three  or  four 
terms  of  twenty  lessons  each,  all  system  is  aban- 
doned. The  method  from  that  time  on  is  about 
of  the  type  described  as  empirical. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  this  classification 
of  methods  is  at  best  very  crude.  It  would  not 
be  easy  to  pick  out  any  one  teacher  who  adheres 
consistently  to  any  of  the  three  forms  of  instruc- 
tion described.  All  that  can  be  said  is  that  a 
teacher  usually  tends  somewhat  more  to  one  type 

/than  to  another. 

I  Further,  the  degree  of  prominence  given  to  the 
idea  of  direct  mechanical  control  of  the  voice  does 
not  classify  a  method  quite  satisfactorily.  With- 
out exception  every  teacher  adheres  to  the  pre- 
vailing idea,  that  the  voice  must  be  controlled 
and  guided  in  some  direct  way, — that  the  singer 
*'must  do  something"  to  cause  the  vocal  organs 
to  operate  properly.  All  the  materials  of  in- 
struction, mechanical  and  empirical,  are  utilized 
for  the  sole  purpose  of  enabling  the  student  to 
learn  how  to  *'do  this  something." 

Several  names  are  used  by  teachers  to  describe 


J 


GENEEAL  VIEW  OF  MODEEN  VOICE  CULTUEE     103 

their  methods.  One  professes  to  teach  a  **  natural 
method/'  another  the  ^'pure  Italian  school  of 
Bel  Canto,''  a  third  the  *^old  Italian  method 
as  illustrated  by  Vocal  Science,"  a  fourth  the 
** strict  scientific  system  of  Voice  Culture."  No 
attention  need  be  paid  to  these  expressions,  as 
they  are  seldom  accurate  descriptions. 

Vocal  lessons  are  usually  of  thirty  minutes* 
duration.  Each  student  generally  takes  two  such 
lessons  every  week,  although  in  some  cases  three, 
four,  or  even  more  are  taken.  A  description  of  a 
few  typical  lessons  will  show  how  the  materials 
of  instruction  are  practically  utilized. 

Example  1:  The  student  takes  a  few  prelimi- 
nary toneless  breaths.  Then  follow,  in  the  order 
given,  a  few  short  tones  for  practice  on  attack, 
some  sustained  tones  on  the  vowel  ah,  exercises 
on  three,  four,  and  five  notes,  ascending  and 
descending,  a  single  tone  followed  by  the  octave 
jump  up  and  descending  scale,  this  last  rising  by 
semitones  through  several  keys.  In  these  exer- 
cises the  student's  attention  is  directed  at 
random  to  the  correct  use  of  the  registers,  to 
nasal  resonance,  forward  emission,  etc.  This 
consumes  ten  or  twelve  minutes  of  the  lesson  time. 


104  THE   PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

More  elaborate  exercises  on  scale  passages  are 
then  sung,  lasting  another  ^ye  minutes.  These  are 
followed  by  a  vocalise  or  two,  and  a  couple  of 
songs  or  arias,  which  fill  out  the  thirty  minutes. 

Example  2:  A  few  breathing  exercises  are 
practised,  followed  by  single  tones  and  short  scale 
passages,  the  whole  lasting  about  five  minutes. 
Then  the  student  is  drilled  for  some  ten  minutes 
on  ** placing  the  head  tones,''  in  the  manner  de- 
scribed in  the  section  on  special  vowel  and 
consonant  drills.  These  exercises  are  varied  by 
swelling  the  high  tone,  by  changing  the  vowels, 
and  by  elaborating  the  descending  scale  passages. 
The  remaining  fifteen  minutes  are  devoted  to 
vocalises  and  songs. 

Example  3 :  This  is  an  advanced  pupil,  whose 
voice  is  supposed  to  be  fairly  well  *^ placed." 
Technical  exercises  of  some  difficulty  are  sung, 
covering  a  range  of  an  octave  and  a  half,  or  a 
little  more.  The  teacher  interrupts  occasionally 
to  say  '*Sing  those  lower  notes  more  in  the  chest 
voice,"  '* Place  the  upper  notes  higher  in  the 
head,"  ''Don't  let  your  vocal  cords  open  on  that 
a/i,"  *'Sing  that  again  and  make  the  tones 
cleaner,"  etc.     One  or  two  arias  are  then  sung, 


GENEEAL  VIEW  OF  MODEEN  VOICE  CULTUEE    105 

interspersed  with  instructions  of  the  same  sort, 
and  also  with  suggestions  regarding  style,  deliv- 
ery, and  expression. 

For  daily  practice  between  lessons,  the  student 
sings  usually  the  same  exercises  and  studies  in- 
cluded in  the  previous  lesson,  and  also  commits  to 
memory  compositions  assigned  for  future  study. 

Examples  of  this  kind  might  be  multiplied 
indefinitely,  but  the  main  points  have  been  fairly 
well  brought  out.  f  Most  important  to  be  noticed 
is  the  fact  that  the  voice  is  trained  by  practice  in 
actual  singing)  In  the  whole  scheme  of  modern 
Voice  Culture,  toneless  muscular  drills  consume 
only  an  insignificant  proportion  of  the  time 
devoted  to  lessons.  Further,  the  number  of  exer- 
cises and  musical  compositions  embraced  in  a 
single  half-hour  lesson  is  very  small.  On  the 
other  hand,  no  limit  can  be  set  to  the  number  of 
topics  of  vocal  control  touched  on  in  any  one  les- 
son. These  latter  are  used,  throughout  the  whole 
range  of  instruction,  without  any  systematic 
sequence.  Whatever  fault  of  production  the 
pupil's  tones  indicate,  the  teacher  calls  attention 
to  the  fault,  and  gives  the  supposedly  appropriate 
rule  for  its  correction.^ 


Part  II 

A  CRITICAL  ANALYSIS  OF 
MODERN  METHODS 


CHAPTEE  I 

MECHANICAL  VOCAL  MANAGEMENT  AS  THE  BASIS  OF 
VOICE  CULTUEE 

Notwithstanding  the  wide  diversity  of  opinion 
on  most  topics  connected  with  vocal  training, 
there  is  one  point  on  which  all  authorities  agree. 
This  is,  that  the  voice  must  be  consciously  con- 
trolled. In  all  the  conflict  of  methods,  this  basic 
mechanical  idea  has  never  been  attacked.  On  the 
contrary,  it  is  everywhere  accepted  without  ques- 
tion as  the  foundation  of  all  instruction  in 
singing. 

The  idea  of  mechanical  vocal  control  is  also  the 
starting-point  of  all  analysis  of  the  vocal  action. 
Every  investigator  of  the  voice  approaches  the 
subject  in  the  belief  that  an  exact  determination 
of  the  muscular  operations  of  correct  singing 
would  lead  to  an  absolutely  infallible  method  of 
training  voices.  The  problem  of  tone-production 
is  identical,  in  the  common  belief,  with  the  prob- 
lem of  the  vocal  action.     Three  sciences,  anatomy, 

109 


110  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

mechanics,  and  acoustics,  are  believed  to  hold 
somewhere  among  them  the  secret  of  the  voice. 
All  investigation  has  therefore  been  carried  on 
along  the  lines  of  these  three  sciences.  It  is  on 
this  account  that  modern  methods  are  called 
scientific,  and  not  because  they  are  in  conformity 
with  general  scientific  principles.  Before  taking 
up  the  question  whether  the  idea  of  mechanical 
vocal  control  is  well  grounded  in  fact  and  reason, 
let  us  consider  further  the  influence  of  this  idea 
modem  methods  of  instruction. 

All  instruction  in  singing  is  intended  to  teach 
the  student  to  **do  something,  *'  in  order  that  the 
vocal  organs  may  be  directly  caused  to  act 
properly.  No  matter  how  vague  and  indefinite 
the  directions  given,  their  aim  is  always  to  inform 
the  student  what  to  do,  how  to  guide  the  vocal 
action.  Even  when  used  in  a  purely  empirical 
way  the  directions  for  open  throat,  etc.,  are  always 
given  in  this  spirit.  That  these  directions  are 
utterly  meaningless  in  the  mechanical  sense  does 
not  alter  the  fact;  nobody  has  ever  found  any 
other  connection  in  which  they  would  take  on  a 
definite  meaning. 

In  this  regard  the  empirical  directions  are  no 


MECHANICAL    VOCAL   MANAGEMENT  111 

more  unsatisfactory  than  the  mechanical  doctrines 
of  the  accepted  Vocal  Science.  It  was  pointed  out 
that  no  means  has  ever  been  discovered  for 
applying  several  of  these  doctrines  in  practical 
instruction.  {The  rules  contained  in  the  theo- 
retical works  on  Voice  Culture  for  managing  the 
registers  and  vocal-cord  action,  for  forward  emis- 
sion of  tone,  and  for  control  of  the  resonance 
cavities,  are  of  no  value  whatever  to  the  student 
of  singing.  \  It  ^11  be  asked,  how  does  the  con- 
scienti(|us  teacher  get  over  this  difficulty?  How 
are  the  deficiencies  of  the  scientific  doctrines  sup- 
plied in  instruction?  In  many  cases  the  deficiency 
is  absolutely  ignored.  The  student  is  simply  told 
to  **make  the  vocal  cords  act  properly,"  to 
*' direct  the  tone  against  the  roof  of  the  mouth," 
to  *' bring  in  the  nasal  resonance,"  etc.,  and  no 
further  help  is  given.  That  this  works  severe 
hardship  on  the  earnest  student  need  hardly  be 
mentioned. 

Other  teachers,  as  has  been  explained,  rely  on 
a  description  of  the  singer's  sensations,  and  on 
the  use  of  several  vowel  and  consonant  combina- 
tions, for  imparting  control  of  resonance  and 
forward  emission.    These  means  are  purely  em- 


112  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

pirical  makeshifts,  and  as  a  rule  they  are  not 
sanctioned  by  the  consistent  advocates  of  scien- 
tific instruction.  But  for  acquiring  control  of  the 
correct  vocal-cord  action,  absolutely  no  means  has 
ever  been  found,  scientific  or  empirical.  On  this, 
the  surpassingly  important  feature  of  the  vocal 
action.  Vocal  Science  has  thrown  no  light 
"whatever. 

It  was  also  remarked  that  the  strictly  scientific 
idea  of  Voice  Culture  is  very  seldom  carried  out, 
to  its  logical  conclusion,  in  actual  instruction. 
One  important  reason  for  this  is  that  a  student 
seldom  remains  long  enough  with  a  teacher  to 
cover  the  entire  ground  of  mechanical  instruction. 
Students  move  about  from  teacher  to  teacher.  In 
the  class  of  any  one  master  the  proportion  of 
pupils  who  have  never  had  any  previous  instruc- 
tion does  not  average  one  in  ten.  To  carry  the 
idea  of  averages  further,  the  length  of  time  a  stu- 
dent takes  lessons  of  one  instructor  may  be  set 
down  as  seldom  more  than  two  years. 

How  long  it  would  take  to  apply  the  complete 
system  of  mechanical  vocal  training  has  never 
been  precisely  stated.  Cases  are  on  record  of 
pupils  being  kept  on  mechanical  drills  and  ele- 


MECHANICAL    VOCAL    MANAGEMENT  113 

mentary  exercises  for  four  years,  without  being 
allowed  to  attempt  a  simple  song.  But  these 
instances  are  extremely  rare.  It  seldom  happens 
that  a  teacher  can  hold  a  pupil  long  enough  to 
carry  out  the  complete  course  of  mechanical 
study. 

There  are  however  many  teachers  who  try 
conscientiously  to  have  their  pupils  pay  attention 
to  all  the  mechanical  features  of  the  vocal  action. 
What  it  would  mean  to  sing  in  this  way  can  only 
he  imagined.  Before  starting  a  tone,  the  singer 
would  prepare  by  taking  a  breath  in  some  pre- 
scribed way,  and  retaining  this  breath  an  instant 
by  holding  the  chest  walls  out.  Meanwhile  the 
lips,  tongue,  soft  palate,  and  larynx  would  each 
be  placed  in  the  correct  position.  The  jaw  would 
be  held  relaxed,  and  the  throat  loose  and  open. 
The  expected  tone  would  be  felt,  in  imagination, 
high  up  in  the  head,  to  assure  the  proper  influence 
of  nasal  resonance.  The  vocal  cords  would  be 
held  in  readiness  to  respond  instantly  to  the 
mental  command,  so  as  to  assure  the  exact  state 
of  tension  necessary.  Preparation  would  be  made 
to  direct  the  *^ column  of  vocalized  breath,'* 
through  the  pharynx  and  mouth,  to  the  proper 

•      8 


114  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

point  on  the  hard  palate.  Then,  at  the  same  pre- 
cise instant,  the  breath  would  be  started,  and  the 
vocal  cords  would  be  brought  together,  but  with- 
out touching. 

So  the  tone  would  be  begun.  And  all  this 
would  have  to  be  done,  with  due  attention  to  each 
operation,  in  the  fraction  of  a  second  preceding 
the  starting  of  the  tone !  The  downright  absurd- 
ity of  this  idea  of  singing  must  be  apparent  to 
any  one  who  has  ever  listened  to  a  great  singer. 

Under  the  influence  of  the  idea  of  mechanical 
vocal  management  there  is  little  room  for  choice 
between  voice  culture  along  empirical  lines,  and 
the  accepted  type  of  scientific  instruction.  Mod- 
ern empirical  voice  training  has  little  practical 
value.  Describing  to  the  student  the  sensations 
which  ought  to  be  felt,  does  not  help  in  the  least. 
Even  if  the  sensations  felt  by  the  singer,  in  pro- 
ducing tone  correctly,  are  entirely  different  from 
those  accompanying  any  incorrect  use  of  the 
voice,  nothing  can  be  learned  thereby.  \The  sen- 
sations of  correct  singing  cannot  be  felt  until  the 
voice  is  correctly  used.  An  effect  cannot  produce 
its  causeJ^  Correct  tone-production  must  be  there 
to  cause  the  sensations,  or  the  sensations  are  not 


MECHANICAL    VOCAL    MANAGEMENT  115 

awakened  at  all.  Nothing  else  can  bring  about 
the  sensations  of  correct  singing,  but  correct  sing- 
ing itself. 

Further,  these  sensations  cannot  be  known 
until  they  are  actually  experienced.  No  descrip- 
tion is  adequate  to  enable  the  student  to  feel  them 
in  imagination.  And,  finally,  even  if  the  sensa- 
tions could  be  described  with  all  vividness, 
imagining  them  would  not  influence  the  vocal 
organs  in  any  way.  This  is  true,  whether  the 
description  is  given  empirically,  or  whether  it  is 
cited  to  explain  a  mechanical  feature  of  the  vocal 
action.  Instruction  based  on  the  singer's  sensa- 
tions is  absolutely  valueless. 

It  would  seem  that  modern  methods  contain 
very  little  of  real  worth.  The  investigation  of 
the  mechanical  operations  of  the  voice  can  hardly 
be  said  to  have  brought  forth  anything  of  definite 
value  to  the  vocal  teacher.  But  this  is  not  the 
worst  that  can  be  said  about  the  mechanical 
doctrines  of  tone-production.  When  critically 
examined,  and  submitted  to  a  rigid  scientific 
analysis,  several  of  these  doctrines  are  found  to 
be  erroneous  in  conception.  These  are  the  theories 
of  breath-control,    chest   resonance,   nasal   reso- 


116  THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   SINGING 

nance,  and  emission  of  tone.  It  will  be  observed 
that  these  doctrines  comprise  more  than  half  of 
the  materials  of  the  accepted  Vocal  Science.  Yet 
notwithstanding  the  fact  that  they  are  accepted 
without  question  by  the  great  majority  of  vocal 
theorists  as  important  elements  of  instruction  in 
singing,  each  of  these  doctrines  involves  a  dis- 
tinct misconception  of  scientific  principles.  An 
examination  of  these  doctrines  is  therefore  the 
next  subject  to  be  undertaken. 


CHAPTER  II 

THE  FALLACY  OF  THE  DOCTEINE  OF  BREATH-CONTROL 

When  Dr.  Mandl  advanced  the  statement  tliat 
the  laryngeal  muscles  are  too  weak  to  withstand 
the  pressure  of  a  powerful  expiratory  blast,  the 
theory  of  the  vocal  action  therein  embodied  met 
with  immediate  acceptance.  This  idea  is  so 
plausible  that  it  appeals  to  the  thoughtful  investi- 
gator as  self-evident,  and  seems  to  call  for  no 
proof.  The  doctrine  of  breath-control  was  at 
once  adopted,  by  the  most  influential  vocal  scien- 
tists, as  the  basic  principle  of  tone-production. 

Curiously,  neither  Dr.  Mandl,  nor  any  other 
advocate  of  breath-control,  seems  to  have  read  an 
article  by  Sir  Charles  Bell  dealing  with  this  same 
action,  the  closing  of  the  glottis  against  a  power- 
ful exhalation.  This  paper,  ^*0n  the  Organs  of 
the  Human  Voice,''  was  read  before  a  meeting  of 
the  London  Philosophical  Society  on  February 
2,  1832. 

117 


118  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

Dr.  Bell  dispels  all  the  mystery  concerning  the 
closure  of  the  glottis,  and  the  holding  of  the 
breath  against  a  powerful  contraction  of  the  ex- 
piratory muscles.  He  points  out  that  this  action 
occurs  in  accordance  with  the  law  of  the  distribu- 
tion of  pressure  in  a  fluid  body,  commonly  known 
as  Pascal's  law  of  fluid  pressures. 

Pascal's  law  is  stated  as  follows: — ** Pressure 
exerted  anywhere  upon  a  mass  of  fluid  is  trans- 
mitted undiminished  in  all  directions,  and  acts 
with  equal  force  on  all  equal  surfaces,  and  in  a 
direction  at  right  angles  to  those  surfaces." 
(Atkinson's  Ganot's  Physics,  4th  ed.,  New  York, 
1869.) 

The  hydraulic  press  furnishes  the  familiar 
illustration  of  this  law.  Two  vertical  cylinders, 
one  many  times  larger  than  the  other,  are  con- 
nected by  a  pipe.  The  cylinders  are  fitted  with 
pistons.  Both  the  cylinders,  and  the  pipe  con- 
necting them,  are  filled  with  water,  oil,  air,  or  any 
other  fluid;  the  fluid  can  pass  freely  from  one 
cylinder  to  the  other,  through  the  connecting  pipe. 
Suppose  a  horizontal  section  of  the  smaller 
cylinder  to  measure  one  square  inch,  that  of  the 
larger  to  be  one  hundred  square  inches.    A  weight 


FALLACY  OF  DOCTRINE  OF  BREATH-CONTROL    119 

of  one  pound  on  the  smaller  piston  will  balance 
a  weight  of  one  hundred  pounds  on  the  larger. 
If  a  downward  pressure  of  one  pound  be  exerted 
on  the  smaller  piston,  the  larger  piston  will  exert 
an  upward  pressure  of  one  hundred  pounds. 
Conversely,  a  downward  pressure  of  one  hundred 
pounds,  exerted  on  the  larger  piston,  will  effect 
an  upward  pressure  of  only  one  pound  on  the 
smaller  piston. 

A  type  of  the  hydraulic  press  is  presented  by 
the  chest  cavity  and  the  larynx,  considered  as  one 
apparatus.  This  fact  is  illustrated  in  the  follow- 
ing quotation:  **If  a  bladder  full  of  water  be 
connected  with  a  narrow  upright  glass  tube, 
heavy  weights  placed  on  the  bladder  will  be  able  to 
uphold  only  a  very  small  quantity  of  liquid  in  the 
tube,  this  arrangement  being  in  fact  a  hydraulic 
press  worked  backwards.  If  the  tube  be  short- 
ened down  so  as  to  form  simply  the  neck  of  the 
bladder,  the  total  expulsive  pressure  exerted  by 
the  bladder  upon  the  contents  of  the  neck  may 
seem  to  be  very  small  when  compared  with  the 
total  pressure  exerted  over  the  walls  of  the 
bladder  upon  the  whole  contents."  (A  Text  Book 


120  THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   SINGING 

of  the  Principles  of  Physics,  Alfred  Daniell, 
London,  1884.) 

That  the  glottis-closing  muscles  are  too  weak 
to  withstand  a  powerful  expiratory  pressure  is 
therefore  an  entirely  erroneous  statement.  Owing 
to  the  small  area  of  the  under  surfaces  of  the 
vocal  cords,  the  air  pressure  against  them  is  very 
small,  in  comparison  with  the  total  pressure 
exerted  on  the  contents  of  the  thorax  by  the  ex- 
piratory contraction.  The  glottis-closing  muscles 
are  fully  capable  of  withstanding  this  compara- 
tively slight  pressure.  The  doctrine  of  breath- 
control  is  therefore  scientifically  untenable.  This 
doctrine  has  no  place  in  Vocal  Science. 

As  the  basic  doctrine  of  breath-control  is  un- 
sound, the  singer  does  not  need  any  direct  means 
for  controlling  the  breath.  The  attempt  to  check 
the  flow  of  the  breath  in  any  mechanical  way  is 
entirely  uncalled  for.  This  being  the  case,  it  is 
hardly  to  be  expected  that  the  systems  devised  to 
meet  this  fancied  need  would  stand  the  test  of 
scientific  examination.  Each  of  these  systems  of 
breath-control,  opposed  muscular  action  and  ven- 
tricular, is  in  fact  found  on  analysis  to  embody  a 
misconception  of  scientific  principles. 


FALLACY  OF  DOCTEINE  OF  BREATH-CONTROL    121 

Opposed- Action  Breath-Control 
A  curious  misappreliension  of  meclianical  pro- 
cesses is  contained  in  the  doctrine  of  breath-con- 
trol by  opposed  muscular  action.  This  can  best 
be  pointed  out  by  a  consideration  of  the  forces 
brought  to  bear  on  a  single  rib  in  the  acts  of 
inspiration  and  expiration.  One  set  of  muscles 
contract  to  raise  this  rib  in  inspiration,  an  opposed 
set,  by  their  contraction,  lower  the  rib  for  the  act 
of  expiration.  In  the  opposed-action  system  of 
breath-control,  the  action  of  the  rib-raising 
muscles  is  continued  throughout  the  expiration, 
as  a  check  upon  the  pull  in  the  opposite  direction 
of  the  rib-lowering  muscles.  Theoretically,  the 
downward  pull  is  *' controlled"  by  the  upward 
pull.  To  express  this  idea  in  figures,  let  the  ex- 
piratory or  downward  pull  on  the  rib  be  said  to 
involve  the  expenditure  of  five  units  of  strength. 
According  to  the  theory  of  opposed- action  breath- 
control,  this  downward  pull  would  have  to  be 
opposed  by  a  slightly  less  upward  pull,  say  four 
imits  of  strength. 

Thus  graphically  presented,  the  fallacy  of  the 
* 'opposed-muscular"  theory  is  clearly  exposed. 
The  rib  is  lowered  with  a  degree  of  strength  equal 


122  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

to  the  excess  of  the  downward  over  the  upward 
pull.  If  the  downward  pull  equals  five  units  of 
strength,  and  the  upward  pull  four  units,  the  rib 
is  lowered  with  a  pull  equivalent  to  one  unit  of 
strength.  Exactly  the  same  effect  would  be 
obtained  if  the  downward  and  upward  pulls  were 
equal  respectively  to  twenty-  and  nineteen  units, 
or  to  two  and  one  units.  Further,  the  result 
would  be  the  same  if  the.downward  pull  involved 
the  exertion  of  one  unit  of  strength,  and  there 
was  no  upward  pull  whatever.  In  every  case,  the 
actual  result  is  equivalent  to  the  excess  of  the 
downward  over  the  upward  pull. 

In  the  case  of  the  expiratory  pressure  of  five 
units  of  strength  being  *  *  controlled ' '  by  an  inspir- 
atory contraction  of  four  units,  nine  units  of 
strength  are  exerted,  and  the  same  result  could 
be  obtained  by  the  exertion  of  one  unit.  There  is 
a  clear  waste  of  eight  units  of  strength.  The 
power  of  the  expiratory  blast  is  just  what  it  would 
be  if  one  unit  of  strength  were  exerted  in  an 
** uncontrolled"  expiration.  The  singer  exerts 
just  nine  times  as  much  strength  as  is  necessary 
to  effect  the  same  result.    This  is  why  the  prac- 


.   \ 

FALLACY  OF  DOCTEINE  OF  BREATH-CONTEOL    123 

tice  of  breath-control  exercises  is  so  extremely 
fatiguing. 

So  far  as  the  effect  of  the  expiratory  blast  on 
the  vocal  cords  is  concerned,  ''controlling"  the 
breath  has  no  influence  whatever.  The  vocal 
cords  respond  to  the  effective  air  pressure;  they 
are  not  affected  in  any  way  by  the  opposed  con- 
tractions of  the  breath  muscles.  ''Opposed-mus- 
cular" breath-control  is  a  sheer  waste  of  time 
and  effort. 

Probably  no  particular  harm  has  ever  resulted 
to  any  singer's  throat  from  the  practice  of  breath- 
control  exercises.  But  the  attempt  to  hold  back 
the  breath  has  a  very  bad  effect  on  the  singer's 
delivery.  The  "breath-control"  type  of  singer  is 
never  found  in  the  ranks  of  the  great  artists. 
There  is  something  utterly  unnatural  about  this 
holding  back  of  the  breath,  repugnant  to  every 
singer  endowed  with  the  right  idea  of  forceful 
and  dramatic  delivery.  The  vast  majority  of  the 
successful  pupils  of  "breath-control"  teachers 
abandon,  very  early  in  their  careers,  the  tiresome 
attempt  to  hold  back  the  breath.  These  singers 
yield,  probably  unconsciously,  to  the  instinctive 
impulse  to  sing  freely  and  without  constraint. 


124  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

But  in  the  ranks  of  the  minor  concert  and 
church  singers  are  many  who  try  conscientiously 
to  obey  the  instructions  of  the  '* breath-control" 
teachers.  Singers  of  this  type  can  always  be 
recognized  by  a  curious  impression  of  hesitancy, 
or  even  timidity,  conveyed  by  their  tones.  They 
seem  afraid  to  deliver  their  phrases  with  vigor 
and  energy;  they  do  not  *4et  their  voices  out." 
Frequently  their  voices  are  of  excellent  quality, 
and  their  singing  is  polished  and  refined.  But 
these  singers  never  give  to  the  listener  that  sense 
of  satisfaction  which  is  felt  on  hearing  a  fine  voice 
freely  and  generously  delivered. 

As  for  the  particular  fallacy  contained  in  the 
theory  of  ventricular  breath-control,  that  must 
be  reserved  for  a  later  chapter.  Suffice  it  to  say 
here  that  this  theory  disregards  the  two  basic 
mechanical  principles  of  tone-production, — Pas- 
cal's law,  and  the  law  of  the  conservation  of 
energy.  The  application  of  this  latter  physical 
law  to  the  operations  of  the  vocal  organs  is  con- 
sidered in  Chapter  VI  of  Part  III. 


CHAPTER  III 

THE    FALLACIES    OF    FORWARD    EMISSION,    CHEST 
RESONANCE,  AND  NASAL  RESONANCE 

Sir  Morell  Mackenzie's  analysis  of  the  acous- 
tic principle  supposedly  involved  in  ''forward 
emission"  has  already  been  quoted.  That  this 
analysis  involves  a  complete  misunderstanding 
of  the  laws  of  acoustics  need  hardly  be  said. 
When  stated  in  precise  terms,  the  fallacy  of  the 
''forward  emission"  theory  is  evident: 

"On  issuing  from  the  vocal  cords  the  tone  is 
directed  in  a  curved  path,  around  the  back  of  the 
tongue.  There  the  tone  is  straightened  out,  and 
made  to  impinge  on  the  roof  of  the  mouth  at  a 
precisely  defined  point.  From  this  point  the  tone 
is  reflected,  not  directly  back,  as  it  should  be, 
since  the  angles  of  incidence  and  reflection  must 
be  equal.  Instead  of  this,  the  tone  is  reflected 
forward,  out  of  the  mouth,  necessarily  again 
taking  a  curved  path,  to  avoid  striking  the  front 
teeth."    Naturally,  no  muscular  action  has  ever 

125 


126  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

been  defined  for  causing  the  tone  to  perform  this 
remarkable  feat. 

The  *^ forward  emission"  theory  assumes  the 
existence  of  a  current  of  air,  issuing  from  the 
vocal  cords  as  a  tone.  In  other  words,  the  tone  is 
supposed  to  consist  of  a  stream  of  air,  which  can 
be  voluntarily  directed  in  the  mouth,  and  aimed 
at  some  precise  point  on  the  roof  of  the  mouth. 
This  is  an  utter  mistake. 

There  is  no  ** column  of  vibrating  air,"  or 
** stream  of  vocalized  breath,"  in  the  mouth  dur- 
ing tone-production.  In  the  acoustic  sense,  the 
air  in  the  mouth-pharynx  is  still  air,  not  air  in  a 
current.  The  only  motion  which  takes  place  in 
the  air  in  this  cavity  is  the  oscillatory  swing  of 
the  air  particles.  To  imagine  the  directing  of  air 
vibrations  in  the  mouth,  as  we  direct  a  stream  of 
water  out  of  a  hose,  is  absurd. 

What  then  is  the  *' forward  tone"!  There 
must  be  some  reason  for  this  well-known  effect  of 
a  perfectly  produced  voice, — the  impression  made 
on  the  hearer  that  the  tones  are  formed  in  the 
front  of  the  mouth.  There  ought  also  to  be  some 
way  for  the  singer  to  learn  to  produce  tones  of 
this  character.    A  consideration  of  this  feature  of 


THE  FALLACIES  OF  FORWAED  EMISSION  127 

the  vocal  action  is  reserved  for  Chapter  IV  of 
Part  ni. 

Chest  Resonance 

Who  was  originally  responsible  for  the  doc- 
trine of  chest  resonance,  it  would  be  impossible 
now  to  determine.  Were  it  not  for  the  fact  of 
this  doctrine  having  received  the  support  of  emi- 
nent scientists  (Holmes,  Mackenzie,  Curtis,  and 
many  others),  it  might  be  looked  upon  as  a  mere 
figure  of  speech.  That  the  tones  of  the  voice  are 
reinforced  by  the  resonance  of  the  air  in  the  chest 
cavity,  is  an  utter  absurdity.  In  the  acoustic 
sense,  the  thorax  is  not  a  cavity  at  all.  The 
thorax  is  filled  with  the  spongy  tissue  of  the 
lungs,  not  to  mention  the  heart.  It  is  no  better 
adapted  for  air  resonance  than  an  ordinary; 
spherical  resonator  would  be,  if  fiilled  with  wet 
sponges. 

Nasal  Resonance 

Enough  was  said  of  the  theories  of  nasal  reso- 
nance in  Chapter  IV  of  Part  I  to  show  the 
unscientific  character  of  all  these  theories.  It 
remains  only  to  point  out  the  misconception  of 
acoustic  principles,  contained  in  all  the  discus- 


128  THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF    SINGING 

sions  of  the  subject.  This  is  very  much  the  same 
as  in  the  theory  of  * 'forward  emission,"  viz.,  that 
the  tones  of  the  voice  consist  physically  of  a 
*' stream  of  vocalized  breath. '^  The  mistaken 
idea  is,  that  nasal  resonance  results  from  part  or 
all  of  the  expired  breath  passing  through  the 
nose. 

What  is  nasal  resonance?  How  is  it  caused? 
What  is  its  effect  on  the  tones  of  the  voice  1  These 
questions  have  never  been  answered.  It  can  how- 
ever be  proved  that  a  satisfactory  science  of 
Voice  Culture  is  not  in  any  way  dependent  on  ob- 
taining an  answer  to  these  questions.  This  much 
is  definitely  known : 

1.  If  the  resonance  of  the  air  in  the  nasal  cav- 
ities exerts  any  influence  on  the  tones  of  the  voice, 
this  influence  cannot  be  increased,  diminished,  or 
prevented  by  any  direct  action  on  the  part  of  the 
singer.  Shutting  off  the  entrance  of  the  breath, 
by  raising  the  soft  palate,  is  possible  as  a  muscu- 
lar exercise.  But  it  is  impossible  to  perform  this 
action,  and  to  sing  artistically,  at  the  same  time. 
To  produce  any  kind  of  tone,  while  holding  the 
soft  palate  raised,  is  extremely  difficult.  In  a 
later  chapter  it  will  be  seen  that  this  action  has 


THE  FALLACIES  OF  FOEWAED  EMISSION  129 

no  place  whatever  in  the  correct  use  of  the  voice. 

2.  As  the  nasal  cavities  are  fixed  in  size  and 
shape,  the  singer  cannot  control  or  vary  any  in- 
fluence which  they  may  exert  as  a  resonator. 

3.  Independent  of  any  thought  or  knowledge 
of  how  the  nasal  quality  of  tone  is  caused,  the 
singer  has  perfect  voluntary  control  over  this 
quality  by  the  simple,  direct  influence  of  the  will. 
A  singer  may  produce  nasal  tones,  or  tones  free 
from  this  faulty  sound,  at  will,  with  no  thought 
of  the  mechanical  processes  involved.  All  that  is 
required  is  that  the  singer  have  an  ear  keen 
enough  to  recognize  the  nasal  quality  in  his  own 
voice,  as  well  as  in  the  voice  of  any  other  singer. 


CHAPTER  IV 

THE  FUTILITY  OF  THE  MATEEIALS  OF  MODEEN 
METHODS 

Of  the  strictly  scientific  or  meclianical  materials 
of  modern  methods,  four  have  been  seen  to  be 
utterly  erroneous.  The  remaining  topics  of  in- 
struction, mechanical  and  empirical,  may  with 
equal  justice  be  submitted  to  a  similar  examina- 
tion. 

Several  of  these  topics  have  already  been  criti- 
cally examined.  The  rules  for  registers  and 
laryngeal  management  were  seen  to  be  of  no  value 
to  the  student  of  singing.  So  also  was  it  observed 
that  all  instruction  which  attempts  to  utilize  the 
singer's  sensations  is  futile.  All  that  is  left  of 
the  materials  of  modern  methods,  in  which  any 
valuable  idea  might  be  contained,  are  the  rules 
for  breathing. 

Without  undertaking  to  decide  whether  one 
system  of  breathing  can  be  right,  to  the  exclusion 
of  all  other  systems,  one  general  remark  can  be 

130 


THE    FUTILITY    OF    THE    MATERIALS  131 

applied  to  the  whole  subject.  |It  has  never  been 
scientifically  proved  that  the  correct  use  of  the 
voice  depends  in  any  way  on  the  mastery  of  an 
acquired  system  of  breathing!)  True,  this  is  the 
basic  assumption  of  all  the  discussions  of  the 
singer's  breathing.  As  FrangQon-Davies  justly 
remarks, — *^A11  combatants  are  agreed  on  one 
point,  viz.,  that  the  singer's  breath  is  an  acquired 
one  of  some  kind.''  {The  Singing  of  the  Future, 
David  FrangQon-Davies,  M.A.,  London,  1906.) 
This  is  purely  an  assumption  on  the  part  of  the 
vocal  theorists.  No  one  has  ever  so  muck  as  at- 
tempted to  offer  scientific  proof  of  the  statement. 

Further,  it  is  frequently  stated  that  the  old 
Italian  masters  paid  much  attention  to  the  sub- 
ject of  breathing;  the  assumption  is  also  made 
that  these  masters  approached  the  subject  in  the 
modern  spirit.  Neither  this  statement,  nor  the 
assumption  based  on  it,  is  susceptible  of  proof. 
To  si  and  Mancini  do  not  even  mention  the  subject 
of  breathing. 

Breathing  has  been  made  the  subject  of  ex- 
haustive mechanical  and  muscular  analysis,  for 
one  reason,  and  for  only  one  reason.  This  is,  be- 
cause the  action  of  breathing  is  the  only  mechani- 


132  THE   PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

cal  feature  of  singing  which  can  be  exhaustively 
studied.  The  laryngeal  action  is  hidden;  the  in- 
fluence of  the  resonance  cavities  cannot  well  be 
determined.  But  the  whole  muscular  operation 
of  breathing  can  be  readily  seen  and  studied; 
any  investigator  can  personally  experiment  with 
every  conceivable  system. 

Furthermore,  the  adoption  of  any  system  of 
breathing  has  no  influence  whatever  on  the  opera- 
tions of  the  voice.  A  student  of  singing  may 
learn  to  take  breath  in  any  way  favored  by  the 
instructor;  the  manner  of  tone-production  is  not 
in  the  least  affected.  Even  if  the  correct  use  of 
the  voice  has  to  be  acquired,  the  mode  of  breath- 
ing does  not  contribute  in  any  way  to  this  result. 

All  that  need  be  said  in  criticism  of  the  various 
doctrines  of  breathing  is,  that  the  importance  of 
this  subject  has  been  greatly  overestimated. 
Breath  and  life  are  practically  synonymous. 
Nothing  but  the  prevalence  of  the  mechanical 
idea  has  caused  so  much  attention  to  be  paid  to 
the  singer's  breathing.  A  tuba  player  will  march 
for  several  hours  in  a  street  parade,  carrying  his 
heavy  instrument,  and  playing  it  fully  half  the 


THE   FUTILITY   OF   THE   MATERIALS  133 

time ;  yet  the  vocal  theorist  does  not  consider  him 
an  object  of  sympathy. 

No  doubt  the  acquirement  of  healthy  habits  of 
breathing  is  of  great  benefit  to  the  general  health. 
But  this  does  not  prove  that  correct  singing  de- 
mands some  kind  of  breathing  inherently  differ- 
ent from  ordinary  life.  To  inspire  quickly  and 
exhale  the  breath  slowly  is  not  an  acquired  ability ; 
it  is  the  action  of  ordinary  speech.  Singing 
demands  that  the  lungs  be  filled  more  quickly  than 
in  ordinary  speech,  and  perhaps  a  fuller  inspira- 
tion is  also  required.  This  is  readily  mastered 
with  very  little  practice.  It  does  not  call  for  the 
acquirement  of  any  new  muscular  movements,  nor 
the  formation  of  any  new  habits. 

What  is  left  of  all  the  materials  of  modern 
vocal  instruction?  To  sum  them  up  in  the  order 
in  which  they  were  considered  in  Part  I : 

Breathing  does  not  need  to  be  mastered  in  any 
such  way  as  is  stated  in  the  theoretical  works  on 
the  voice.  Breath-control  is  a  complete  fallacy. 
The  doctrines  of  registers  and  laryngeal  action 
are  utterly  valueless.  Chest  resonance,  nasal 
resonance,  and  forward  emission,  are  scientifically 
erroneous.     The  traditional  precepts  are  of  no 


134  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

value,  because  nobody  knows  how  to  follow  or 
apply  them.  Empirical  teaching  based  on  the 
singer's  sensations  is  of  no  avail. 

In  other  words,  modern  methods  contain  not 
one  single  topic  of  any  value  whatever  in  the 
training  of  the  voice.  It  will  be  objected  that  this 
statement  is  utterly  absurd,  because  many  of  the 
world's  greatest  singers  have  been  trained  ac- 
cording to  these  methods.  No  doubt  this  is  in  one 
sense  true;  modern  methods  can  point  to  many 
brilliant  successes.  But  this  does  not  prove  any- 
thing in  favor  of  the  materials  of  modern 
methods. 

Singers  are  trained  to-day  exactly  as  they 
were  trained  two  hundred  years  ago,  through  a 
reliance  on  the  imitative  faculty.  The  only  dif- 
ference is  this :  In  the  old  days,  the  student  was 
directly  and  expressly  told  to  listen  and  to  imi- 
tate, while  to-day  the  reliance  on  the  imitative 
faculty  is  purely  instinctive.  A  fuller  considera- 
tion of  the  important  function  of  imitation  as  an 
unrecognized  element  of  modem  Voice  Culture  is 
contained  in  Chapter  V  of  Part  IV. 


CHAPTEE  V 

THE  EREOR  OF  THE  THEORY  OF  MECHANICAL  VOCAL 
MANAGEMENT 

A  FUNDAMENTAL  difference  was  pointed  out,  at 
the  close  of  the  preceding  chapter,  between  the 
old  Italian  raethod  and  modern  systems  of  vocal 
instrnction.  (This  is  worthy  of  repetition.  The 
old  Italian  method  was  founded  on  the  faculty  of 
imitation.  Modern  methods  have  as  their  basis 
the  idea  of  conscious,  direct,  mechanical  control 
of  the  vocal  organs.  /  All  the  materials  of  instruc- 
tion ba^ed  on  this  idea  of  mechanical  control  were 
seen  to  be  absolutely  valueless.  It  is  now  in  order 
to  examine  still  further  the  structure  of  modern 
Voice  Culture,  and  to  test  this  basic  idea  of 
mechanical  control. 

As  a  muscular  operation,  the  actions  of  singing 
must  be  subject  to  the  same  physiological  and 
psychological  laws  which  govern  all  other  volun- 
tary muscular  actions.  What  are  these  laws? 
How  do  we  guide  and  control  our  muscular  move- 

135 


136  THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   SINGING 

ments?  At  first  sight,  this  seems  a  simple  ques- 
tion. We  know  what  we  want  to  do,  and  we  do 
it.  But  the  important  point  is,  how  are  we  able 
to  do  the  things  we  want  to  do?  You  wish  to 
raise  your  hand,  for  example,  therefore  you  raise 
it.  How  does  your  hand  know  that  you  wish  to 
raise  it?  Does  the  hand  raise  itself?  Not  at  all; 
it  is  raised  by  the  contraction  of  certain  muscles 
in  the  arm,  shoulder,  and  back.  That  is,  when 
you  wish  to  raise  your  hand,  certain  muscles  con- 
tract themselves.  But  these  muscles  are  not  part 
of  the  hand.  What  leads  these  muscles  in  the 
shoulder  and  back  to  contract,  when  you  will  to 
raise  your  hand?  Normally  you  are  not  even 
aware  of  their  contraction.  Yet  in  some  way 
these  muscles  know  that  they  are  called  on  to 
contract,  in  response  to  the  wish  to  raise  the  hand. 
This  takes  place,  even  though  you  know  nothing 
whatever  of  the  muscles  in  question.  The  process 
is  by  no  means  so  simple,  when  looked  at  in  this 
light. 

A  complicated  psychological  process  is  in- 
volved in  the  simplest  voluntary  movements. 
This  is  seen  in  the  following  analysis : 

**To  move  any  part  of  the  body  voluntarily 


THE    EREOR   OF    THE    THEORY  137 

requires  the  following  particulars:  (1)  The  pos- 
session of  an  educated  reflex-motor  mechanism, 
under  the  control  of  the  higher  cerebral  centers 
which  are  most  immediately  connected  with  the 
phenomena  of  consciousness;  (2)  certain  motifs 
in  the  form  of  conscious  feelings  that  have  a  tone 
of  pleasure  or  pain,  and  so  impel  the  mind  to  se- 
cure such  bodily  conditions  as  will  continue  or  in- 
crease the  one,  and  discontinue  or  diminish  the 
other;  (3)  ideas  of  motions  and  positions  of  the 
bodily  members,  which  previous  experience  has 
taught  us  answer  more  or  less  perfectly  to  the 
motifs  of  conscious  feeling;  (4)  a  conscious  fiat 
of  will,  settling  the  question,  as  it  were,  which  of 
these  ideas  shall  be  realized  in  the  motions 
achieved  and  positions  attained  by  these  mem- 
bers; (5)  a  central  nervous  mechanism,  which 
serves  as  the  organ  of  relation  between  this  act 
of  will  and  the  discharge  of  the  requisite  motor 
impulses  along  their  nerve-tracts  to  the  groups  of 
muscles  peripherally  situated.''  {Elements  of 
Physiological  Psychology,  Geo.  T.  Ladd,  New 
York,  1889.) 

Let  us  again  consider  the  action  of  raising  the 
hand,  and  see  how  the  psychological  analysis  ap- 


138  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

plies  in  this  movement.  We  note  in  the  first 
place  that  we  are  concerned  only  with  the  third, 
fourth,  and  fifth  particulars  of  Prof.  Ladd's 
analysis.    These  are: 

The  idea  of  the  movement. 

The  fiat  of  will  which  directs  that  this  move- 
ment be  performed. 

The  discharge  of  the  requisite  motor  impulses, 
along  the  nerve-tracts,  to  the  muscles  whose  con- 
traction constitutes  the  movement. 

It  will  be  simpler,  and  will  answer  the  purpose 
equally  well,  to  combine  the  third  and  fourth  ele- 
ments, and  to  consider  as  one  element  the  idea  of 
the  movement  and  the  fiat  of  will  to  execute  the 
movement. 

The  Idea  of  a  Movement 

The  mental  picture  of  a  purposed  movement  is 
simple  and  direct.  No  reference  is  involved  to 
the  muscles  concerned  in  the  performance  of  the 
movement.  When  you  will  to  raise  your  hand, 
the  action  is  pictured  to  your  mind  as  the  raising 
of  the  hand,  and  nothing  more.  Certain  muscles 
are  to  be  contracted.  But  the  mental  picture  of 
the  movement  does  not  indicate  what  these  muscles 


THE   EEROR   OF   THE    THEORY  13d 

are,  in  what  order  they  are  to  be  brought  into 
play,  nor  the  relative  degrees  of  strength  to  be 
exerted  by  each  muscular  fiber.  You  do  not  con- 
sciously direct  the  muscles  in  their  contractions. 

The  Discharge  to  the  Muscles  of  the  Nerve 
Impulse 

How  then  are  the  muscles  intormea  that  their 
contraction  is  called  for?  They  have  no  inde- 
pendent volition;  each  muscular  fiber  obeys  the 
impulse  transmitted  to  it  by  the  nerve,  from  the 
nerve  center  governing  its  action.  These  nerve 
centers  are  in  their  turn  controlled  by  the  central 
nervous  mechanism.  And  in  complex  voluntary 
movements  the  central  nervous  mechanism  is 
under  the  control  of  the  higher  cerebral  centers. 
The  wish  to  raise  the  hand  appears  to  the  mind 
as  an  idea  of  the  hand  being  raised.  This  idea  is 
translated  by  the  central  nervous  mechanism  into 
a  set  of  motor  nerve  impulses.  Does  conscious- 
ness or  volition  come  into  play  here?  Not  at  all. 
On  this  point  Prof.  Ladd  remarks:  *^As  to  the 
definite  nature  of  the  physical  basis  which  under- 
lies the  connection  of  ideas  of  motion  and  the 


140  THE   PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

starting  outward  of  the  right  motor  impulses, 
our  ignorance  is  almost  complete." 

Is  it  necessary  for  the  performance  of  a  com- 
plex muscular  action  that  the  individual  know 
what  muscles  are  involved  and  how  and  when  to 
contract  them?  No;  this  knowledge  is  not  only- 
unnecessary,  it  is  even  impossible.  Prof.  Ladd 
says  of  this:  **It  would  be  a  great  mistake  to 
regard  the  mind  as  having  before  it  the  cerebral 
machinery,  all  nicely  laid  out,  together  with  the 
acquired  art  of  selecting  and  touching  the  right 
nervous  elements  in  order  to  produce  the  desired 
motion,  as  a  skilful  player  of  the  piano  handles 
his  keyboard." 

How  then  are  the  muscles  informed  of  the 
service  required  of  them?  Or  more  precisely, 
how  does  the  central  nervous  mechanism  know 
what  distribution  of  nerve  impulses  to  make 
among  the  different  nerve  centers  governing  the 
muscles?  As  Prof.  Ladd  says,  our  ignorance  on 
this  point  is  almost  complete.  There  resides  in 
the  central  nervous  mechanism  governing  the 
muscles  something  which  for  lack  of  a  better  name 
may  be  called  an  instinct.  When  a  purposeful 
movement  of  any  part  of  the  body  is  willed,  the 


THE    EKEOR   OF   THE    THEORY  141 

mental  picture  of  the  movement  is  translated  by 
the  central  nervous  mechanism  into  a  succession 
of  nerve  impulses;  these  impulses  are  trans- 
mitted through  the  lower  centers  to  the  muscles. 
The  instinct  informing  the  central  nervous 
mechanism  how  to  apportion  the  discharges  of 
nerve  impulse  among  the  various  muscular  cen- 
ters is  to  a  high  degree  mysterious.  The  present 
purpose  will  not  be  served  by  carrying  the 
analysis  of  this  instinct  further.^ 

There  is  therefore  no  direct  conscious  guidance 
of  the  muscles,  in  any  movement,  simple  or  com- 
plex. So  far  as  the  command  of  voluntary  mus- 
cular actions  is  concerned,  the  first  simple  state- 
ment of  the  process  sums  up  all  that  for  practical 
purposes  need  be  determined ; — we  know  what  we 
want  to  do,  and  we  do  it.     The  mind  forms  the 

*  The  evolutionary  development  of  this  instinct  is  not  alto- 
gether mysterious.  Science  can  fairly  well  trace  the  successive 
steps  in  the  development  of  the  central  nervous  mechanism,  from 
the  amoeba  to  the  highest  type  of  vertebrate.  *' Nerve  channels" 
are  worn  by  the  repeated  transmission  of  impulses  over  the  same 
tracts.  Coordinations  become  in  successive  generations  more 
complex  and  more  perfect.  As  consciousness  develops  further,  in 
each  succeeding  type,  actions  originally  reflex  tend  to  take  on  a 
more  consciously  purposeful  character.  But  all  we  are  concerned 
with  now  is  the  problem  of  tone-production.  Our  purpose  is  best 
served  by  accepting  the  faculty  of  muscular  adaptation  as  an 
instinet,  pure  and  simple. 


143  THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   SINGING 

idea  of  an  action  and  the  mnscles  instinctively 
respond. 

But  the  fact  remains  that  the  muscles  need 
to  be  guided  in  some  way.  We  do  not  per- 
form instinctively  many  complex  actions, — ^writ- 
ing, dancing,  rowing,  swimming,  etc.  All  these 
actions,  and  indeed  most  of  the  activities  of  daily 
life,  must  be  consciously  learned  by  practice  and 
repeated  effort.  How  are  these  efforts  guided? 
To  arrive  at  an  answer  to  this  question  let  us 
consider  how  a  schoolboy  practises  his  writing 
lesson. 

The  boy  begins  by  having  before  him  a  copy 
of  the  letters  he  is  to  write.  Under  the  guidance 
of  the  eye  the  hand  traces  these  letters.  At  each 
instant  the  eye  points  out  to  the  hand  the  direc- 
tion in  which  to  move.  As  the  hand  occasionally 
wanders  from  the  prescribed  direction  the  eye 
immediately  notes  the  deviation  and  bids  the  hand 
to  correct  it.  The  hand  responds  to  the  demands 
of  the  eye,  immediately,  without  thought  on  the 
boy's  part  of  nerve  impulse  or  of  muscular  con- 
traction. By  repeated  efforts  the  boy  improves 
upon  his  first  clumsy  attempts;  with  each  repeti- 
tion he  approaches  nearer  to  the  model. 


THE   ERROR   OF   THE    THEORY  148 

In  the  course  of  this  progress  the  muscular 
sense  gradually  comes  to  the  assistance  of  the 
eye  as  a  sort  of  supplementary  guidance.  But 
at  no  time  is  the  eye  relieved  of  the  responsibility 
of  guiding  the  hand  in  writing.  To  sum  this  up, 
the  movements  of  the  hand  in  writing  are  guided, 
so  far  as  the  consciousness  is  aware,  directly  by 
the  sense  of  sight. 

We  have  here  the  law  of  voluntary  muscular 
guidance.  In  all  voluntary  movements  the  mus- 
cles are  guided  in  their  contractions,  through 
some  instinctive  process,  by  the  sense  or  senses 
which  observe  the  movements  themselves,  and 
more  especially,  the  results  of  the  movements. 
In  most  actions  the  two  senses  concerned  are 
sight  and  muscular  sense.  The  more  an  action 
becomes  habitual  the  more  it  tends  to  be  per- 
formed under  the  guidance  of  muscular  sense, 
and  to  be  free  from  the  necessity  of  the  guidance 
of  the  eye.  But  muscular  sense  does  not  usually 
rise  so  high  into  consciousness  as  sight,  in  the 
guidance  of  muscular  activities.  Many  oft-re- 
peated movements,  especially  those  of  walking, 
become  thoroughly  habitual  and  even  automatic; 
that  is,  the  muscular  contractions  are  performed 


144  THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   SINGING 

as  purely  reflex  actions,  without  conscious  guid- 
ance of  any  kind.  But  even  in  walking,  the 
necessity  may  at  any  instant  arise  for  conscious 
guidance.  In  such  a  case  the  sense  of  sight 
immediately  comes  into  service;  from  reflex  the 
movements  become  voluntary,  and  consciously 
guided.  In  the  case  of  most  complex  actions  the 
sense  of  sight  furnishes  the  most  important 
giddance. 

/if  the  muscular  operations  of  singing  are  sub- 
ject to  the  general  laws  of  psychological  control, 
the  guidance  of  the  vocal  organs  must  be  fur- 
nished by  the  sense  which  observes  the  results  of 
the  movements  involved.  This  is  the  sense  of 
hearing.  Just  as  in  writing  the  hand  is  guided 
by  the  eye,  so  in  singing  the  voice  is  guided  by 
the  ear.  There  can  be  no  other  means  of  guiding 
the  voice.  Muscular  sense  may  under  certain 
conditions  supplement  the  sense  of  hearing,  but 
under  no  circumstances  can  muscular  sense 
assume  full  command.  The  net  result  of  the 
application  of  psychological  principles  to  the 
problem  of  tone-production  is  simply  this,  that 
the  voice  is  guided  directly  by  the  ear. 
It  is  thus  seen  that  the  idea  of  mechanical  vocal 


THE   EREOE   OF   THE    THEORY  145 

management  is  utterly  erroneous.  On  pushing 
the  analysis  still  further  the  fallacy  of  this  idea 
is  found  to  be  even  more  glaring. 

Is  a  knowledge  of  anatomy  of  any  assistance 
in  the  acquirement  of  skill  in  performing  complex 
muscular  actions?  Not  in  the  least.  An  under- 
standing of  muscular  processes  does  not  con- 
tribute in  any  way  to  skilful  execution.  The 
anatomist  does  not  play  billiards  or  row  a  boat 
one  whit  the  better  for  all  his  knowledge  of  the 
muscular  structure  of  the  body. 

Even  if  the  precise  workings  of  the  vocal 
mechanism  could  be  determined,  the  science  of 
Voice  Culture  would  not  benefit  thereby  I  Know- 
ing how  the  muscles  should  act  does  not  help  us 
to  make  them  act  properly.  It  is  utterly  idle  to 
tell  the  vocal  student  that  as  the  pitch  of  the  voice 
rises  the  arytenoid  cartilages  rotate,  bringing 
their  forward  surfaces  together,  and  so  shorten- 
ing the  effective  length  of  the  vocal  cords?\  What- 
ever the  vocal  cords  are  required  to  do  is  per- 
formed through  an  instin^ve  obedience  to  the 
demands  of  the  mental  ear.  ? 

And  finally,  a  precise  analysis  of  muscular  con- 
tractions is  impossible,  even  in  the  case  of  com- 

10 


146  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

paratively  simple  actions.  When,  for  example, 
the  hand  describes  a  circle  in  the  air,  a  number  of 
muscles  are  involved.  True,  it  is  known  what 
these  muscles  are,  and  what  effect  the  combined 
contractions  of  any  group  would  have  on  the  posi- 
tion of  the  hand.  The  direction  of  the  hand's 
motion  at  any  instant  is  determined  by  the  result- 
ant of  all  the  forces  exerted  on  this  member.  But 
as  this  direction  constantly  changes,  so  must  the 
relative  degrees  of  strength  exerted  by  the  muscles 
also  constantly  change.  At  no  two  successive  in- 
stants are  the  muscular  adjustments  the  same. 
This  simple  action,  performed  without  thought  or 
knowledge  of  the  muscular  processes,  presents 
features  too  complex  to  be  analyzed  on  the  basis 
of  mechanical  law  and  anatomic  structure. 

A  complete  analysis  of  the  muscular  operations 
of  tone-production  is  absolutely  impossible.  The 
adjustments  of  the  laryngeal  muscles  involve 
probably  the  most  minute  variations  in  degree  of 
contraction  performed  in  the  whole  voluntary 
muscular  system.  What  we  do  know  of  the  me- 
chanical operations  of  the  voice  is  exceedingly  in- 
teresting, and  a  further  knowledge  of  the  subject 
is  greatly  to  be  desired.     But  we  can  never  hope 


THE    ERROR    OF    THE    THEORY  147 

to  clear  up  all  the  mystery  of  the  vocal  action. 

This  statement  must  not  be  construed  to  mean 
that  the  study  of  the  vocal  mechanism  has  been 
devoid  of  valuable  results.^  On  the  contrary,  the 
present  understanding  of  the  mechanical  opera- 
tions of  the  voice  will  be  found  of  very  great  value 
in  erecting  a  true  science  of  Voice  Culture.)  The 
only  weakness  of  the  present  results  of  vocal 
Investigation  is  due  to  the  fact  that  this  investi- 
gation has  always  been  carried  on  under  the 
Influence  of  the  idea  of  mechanical  vocal  manage- 
ment. This  influence  has  led  all  theoretical 
students  of  the  subject  to  attempt  to  apply  their 
knowledge  in  formulating  rules  for  direct  me- 
chanical guidance  of  the  voice.  That  these  rules 
are  valueless  is  due  solely  to  the  fundamental 
error  involved  in  the  mechanical  idea. 

Voice  Culture  must  be  turned  from  the  idea  of 
mechanical  vocal  management.  The  old  Italian 
masters  were  right  in  that  they  relied,  even 
though  empirically,  on  the  imitative  faculty. 
Modern  teachers  may  do  better,  for  in  the  light 
of  present  Imowledge  reliance  on  the  faculty  of 
vocal  imitation  can  be  shown  to  be  in  strict 
accord  with  sound  scientific  principles. 


Part  III 

THE  BASIS  OF  A  REAL  SCIENCE 
OF  VOICE 


CHAPTEE   I 

THE  MEANS  OF  EMPIEICAL  OBSEEVATION  OF  THE 
VOICE 

To  all  knowledge  obtained  through  the  obser- 
vation of  facts  and  phenomena,  the  term  empiri- 
cal is  properly  applied.  Empirical  knowledge 
mnst  be  the  basis  of  every  science.  To  be  avail- 
able in  forming  a  science,  empirical  knowledge 
of  a  subject  must  be  so  carefully  gathered  that 
all  probability  of  error  is  eliminated ;  the  observa- 
tions must  be  so  exhaustive  as  to  embrace  every 
possible  source  of  information.  From  the  knowl- 
edge thus  obtained  a  set  of  verified  general  rules 
must  be  worked  out  with  which  all  the  observed 
facts  and  phenomena  are  shown  to  be  in  accord. 
Then  a  science  has  been  erected.  There  is  no 
possibility  of  conflict  between  empirical  and 
scientific  knowledge.  The  discovery  of  a  single 
fact,  at  variance  with  the  supposed  general  laws 
bearing  on  any  subject,  is  sufficient  to  overthrow 
the  entire  structure  which  had  been  accepted  as  a 
science. 

151 


152  THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   SINGING 

In  the  accepted  Vocal  Science  the  terms  em- 
pirical and  scientific  are  used  in  a  sense  entirely 
different  from  that  which  properly  attaches  to 
these  words.  Present  knowledge  of  the  opera- 
tions of  the  voice  is  called  scientific,  solely  because 
it  is  derived  from  the  sciences  of  anatomy, 
acoustics,  and  mechanics.  The  term  ^^  empirical 
knowledge  of  the  voice''  is  used  as  a  name  for 
Imowledge  of  the  subject  drawn  from  any  source 
other  than  these  sciences.  Yet  so  far  as  the 
modern  vocal  world  seems  to  be  aware,  it  pos- 
sesses no  knowledge  of  the  voice  other  than  that 
commonly  called  scientific.  It  is  supposed  that 
the  old  Italian  masters  had  some  **  empirical 
understanding  of  the  voice."  But,  if  this  was 
the  case,  their  empirical  knowledge  has  appar- 
ently been  utterly  lost. 

Thus  far  in  the  present  work,  the  usage  of  the 
terms  empirical  and  scientific,  accepted  by  vocal 
theorists  generally,  has  been  adopted.  A  dis- 
tinction has  been  drawn  between  knowledge  of 
the  voice  obtamed  through  the  study  of  the  vocal 
mechanism  and  that  obtained  through  observation 
of  any  other  kind.  The  purpose  will  best  be 
served  by  continuing  this  same  usage. 


MEANS   OF    EMPIRICAL    OBSERVATION  153 

It  must  be  apparent  to  the  reader,  from  the 
analysis  of  modern  methods,  that  no  real  Science 
of  Voice  has  thus  far  been  erected.  This  is  due 
to  the  fact  that  the  general  principles  of  scientific 
investigation  have  not  been  applied  to  the  study 
of  the  voice.  Under  the  influence  of  the  idea  of 
mechanical  vocal  management  the  attention  of  all 
investigators  has  been  turned  exclusively  to  the 
mechanical  features  of  tone-production.  Mean- 
while the  empirical  knowledge  of  the  old  masters 
seems  to  have  been  forgotten.  As  a  matter  of 
fact,  as  will  now  be  seen,  this  empirical  knowledge 
has  never  been  lost.  Every  modern  teacher  of 
singing  shares  the  empirical  knowledge  whicK 
formed  the  sole  material  of  the  old  method.  But 
this  knowledge  is  not  applied  effectually  in  mod- 
ern instruction  for  two  reasons.  First,  modern 
teachers  do  not  realize  the  importance  of  this 
knowledge;  indeed,  they  are  practically  unaware 
of  this  valuable  possession.  Although  in  fact  the 
basis  of  nearly  all  modern  instruction  in  singing, 
empirical  knowledge  is  always  unconsciously  used. 
Second,  empirical  knowledge  is  always  applied  in 
the  prevailing  mechanical  spirit.  (The  attempt  is 
always  made  to  translate  the  sub-conscious  em- 


154  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

pirical  understanding  of  the  voice  into  rules 
for  direct  mechanical  management.  Under  the 
influence  of  the  mechanical  idea  the  modern 
teacher's  most  valuable  possession,  empirical 
knowledge  of  the  voice,  becomes  utterly  un- 
serviceable. 

Thus  far,  the  whole  result  of  this  work  has 
been  destructive.  The  accepted  Vocal  Science 
has  been  shown  to  be  erroneous  in  its  conception 
and  unsound  in  its  conclusions.  The  work  cannot 
halt  here.  Vocal  Science  must  be  reconstructed. 
This  can  be  done  only  by  following  the  general 
plan  of  all  scientific  investigation,  beginning  with 
the  observation  of  all  ascertainable  facts  bearing 
on  the  voice. 

How  can  any  facts  be  observed  about  the  voice 
other  than  by  the  study  of  the  vocal  mechanism? 
An  answer  to  this  question  is  at  once  suggested 
so  soon  as  scientific  principles  are  applied  to  the 
subject.  Strictly  speaking,  the  voice  is  a  set  of 
sounds,  produced  by  the  action  of  the  vocal 
organs.  The  scientific  method  of  inquiry  is 
therefore  to  begin  by  observing  these  sounds. 
Sounds  as  such  can  be  observed  only  by  the  sense 
of  hearing.  It  follows  then  that  the  attentive 
listening  to  voices  is  the  first  step  to  be  taken. 


MEANS   OF    EMPIEICAL    OBSEEVATION  155 

Can  any  empirical  knowledge  of  the  voice  be 
obtained  by  the  mere  listening  to  voices'?  If  so, 
we  ought  now  to  be  in  possession  of  any  facts 
which  might  be  thus  observed.  Is  it  possible  that 
information  of  this  character  is  already  a  common 
possession  of  the  vocal  world,  and  yet  that  this 
information  has  never  been  applied  in  the  inves- 
tigation of  the  voice!  This  is  exactly  the  case. 
Many  facts  regarding  the  voice  have  been  ob- 
served so  continually  that  they  are  a  matter  of 
common  knowledge,  and  yet  these  facts  have 
never  been  recorded  in  a  scientific  manner. 

Consider,  for  example,  this  remark  about  a 
famous  singer,  made  by  one  of  the  foremost 
musical   critics    of   the    United   States:     **Mme. 

T 's  lower  medium  notes  were  all  sung  with  a 

pinched  glottis.''  How  did  this  critic  know  that 
the  singer  had  pinched  her  glottis?  He  had  no 
opportunity  of  examining  her  throat  with  the 
laryngoscope,  nor  of  observing  her  throat  action 
in  any  other  way.  In  fact,  the  critic  was  seated 
probably  seventy-five  feet  from  the  artist  at  the 
time  the  tones  in  question  were  sung.  The  critic 
had  only  one  means  of  knowing  anything  about 
the  singer's  throat  action,  and  that  was  contained 


156  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

in  the  sound  of  the  tones.  There  must  therefore 
have  been  something  in  the  sound  of  the  tones 
which  conveyed  this  information  to  the  critical 
listener.  For  many  years  this  gentleman  had 
been  in  the  habit  of  listening  closely  to  singers, 
and  he  had  found  some  way  of  estimating  the 
singer's  throat  action  by  the  character  of  the 
tones  produced. 

This  same  means  of  judging  the  manner  of  pro- 
duction from  the  sound  of  the  tones  seems  to  have 
been  utilized  nearly  two  hundred  years  ago. 
Speaking  of  the  most  frequent  faults  of  tone- 
production,  Tosi  remarks:  **The  voice  of  the 
scholar  should  always  come  forth  neat  and  clear, 
without  passing  through  the  nose  or  being  choked 
in  the  throat."  Mancini  also  speaks  of  the  faults 
of  nasal  and  throaty  voice:  *^Un  cantare  di  gola 
e  di  naso.''  A  throaty  tone,  therefore,  impressed 
these  writers  as  being  in  some  way  formed  or 
caught  in  the  singer's  throat.  It  may  be  set 
down  as  certain  that  no  pupil  ever  explained  to 
either  of  these  masters  how  the  objectionable 
sounds  were  produced.  How  then  did  Tosi  and 
Mancini  know  the  manner  in  which  a  throaty  tone 
is  produced? 


MEANS   OF   EMPIRICAL    OBSERVATION  157 

We  need  not  go  back  to  the  early  writers  to  find 
out  what  is  meant  by  a  throaty  tone.  Fully  as 
many  throaty  singers  are  heard  nowadays  as  the 
old  masters  ever  listened  to.  What  do  we  mean 
when  we  say  that  a  singer's  voice  is  throaty? 
The  answer  to  this  question  seems  at  first  sight 
simple  enough:  The  tones  impress  us  as  being 
formed  in  the  singer's  throat.  But  what  conveys 
this  impression?  Something  in  the  sound  of  the 
tone,  of  course.  Yet  even  that  is  not  enough. 
How  can  a  tone,  merely  a  sound  to  which  we 
listen,  tell  us  anything  about  the  condition  of  the 
singer's  throat  during  the  production  of  the  tone? 
Here  again  the  answer  seems  simple:  The  lis- 
tener knows  that,  in  order  to  produce  a  tone  of 
like  character,  he  would  have  to  contract  his  own 
throat  in  some  way. 

Here  we  have  a  highly  significant  fact  about 
the  voice.  On  hearing  a  throaty  tone,  the  listener 
can  tell  how  this  tone  is  produced:  he  feels  that 
he  would  have  to  contract  his  own  throat  in 
order  to  produce  a  similar  tone.  Let  us  carry 
this  discussion  a  little  further.  How  does  the 
listener  know  this?  Certainly  not  by  actually 
singing  a  throaty  tone.    When  seated  in  a  con- 


158  THE   PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

cert  hall,  for  example,  and  listening  to  a  throaty 
singer,  the  hearer  cannot  rise  from  his  seat,  sing 
a  few  throaty  tones  himself,  and  then  note  how 
his  throat  feels.  The  critic  just  mentioned  did 
not  sing  some  notes  with  ** pinched  glottis"  in 

order  to  learn  how  Mme.  T sang  her  low  tones. 

Evidently  it  is  not  necessary  actually  to  imitate 
the  singer;  the  hearer  gets  the  same  result  by 
imitating  the  sounds  mentally.  In  other  words, 
when  we  hear  throaty  tones  we  mentally  imitate 
these  tones ;  thus  we  know  that  we  should  have  to 
contract  our  own  throats  in  order  to  produce 
similar  tones. 

But  even  here  we  cannot  stop.  To  imitate  the 
singer  actually  is  one  thing;  mental  imitation  is 
something  entirely  different.  In  the  first  case, 
actual  imitation,  our  muscular  sense  would  inform 
us  of  the  state  of  throat  tightening.  But  in  the 
case  of  mental  imitation  there  is  no  actual  tighten- 
ing of  the  throat,  nothing,  at  any  rate,  comparable 
to  what  takes  place  in  actual  imitation.  There  is 
then  a  dual  function  of  the  imagination;  first, 
the  mental  imitation  of  the  sound;  second,  the 
imaginary  tightening  of  the  throat.  The  analysis 
of  the  mental  process  must  therefore  be  modified, 


MEANS   OF   EMPIRICAL   OBSERVATION  159 

and  stated  as  follows:  When  we  listen  to  a 
throaty  tone  we  mentally  imitate  the  tone;  an 
imaginative  function  of  the  muscular  sense  in- 
forms us  what  condition  the  singer's  throat 
assumes  for  the  production  of  the  tone. 

I A  similar  operation  takes  place  in  listening  to 
nasal  voices.  An  impression  is  conveyed  by  a 
nasal  tone,  through  which  the  hearer  is  informed 
of  a  condition  of  tightness  or  contraction  some- 
where in  the  singer's  nose. 

The  terms  applied  to  the  two  most  marked 
forms  of  faulty  tone-production,  nasal  and 
throaty,  are  derived  from  impressions  conveyed 
by  the  sounds  of  the  tones.  These  names,  nasal 
and  throaty,  refer  to  a  feeling  of  tightness  or 
contraction  experienced  in  imagination  by  the 
hearer;  in  one  case  this  feeling  is  located  in  the 
nose,  in  the  other,  in  the  throat.  But  the  terms 
nasal  and  throaty  are  general  descriptions  of 
faulty  tones.  Each  one  covers  a  wide  range  of 
tone  qualities.  There  is  an  almost  infinite 
variety  of  throaty  tones,  and  of  nasal  sounds  as 
well.  The  knowledge  of  the  voice  obtained  by 
listening  to  vocal  tones  is  of  equally  wide  extent. 
Every  throaty  tone,  whatever  its  precise  char- 


160  THE   PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

acter,  informs  the  hearer  of  the  exact  condition 
of  the  singer's  throat  in  producing  the  tone.  In 
short,  every  vocal  tone  is  thus  analyzed  by  the 
critical  listener,  and  referred  in  imagination  to 
his  own  throat.  An  insight  into  the  singer's 
vocal  action  is  imparted  to  the  hearer  through 
an  imaginative  process  which  always,  of  neces- 
sity, accompanies  the  attentive  listening  to  vocal 
tones. 

Every  vocal  tone  awakens  in  the  hearer  a  set 
of  imagined  muscular  sensations.  These  sensa- 
tions furnish  the  means  for  an  exhaustive  analysis 
of  the  operations  of  the  voice.  The  production 
of  tone  therefore  awakens  two  sets  of  muscular 
sensations,  one  actually  felt  by  the  singer,  the 
other  felt  in  imagination  by  the  listener.  The 
former  are  commonly  known  as  the  ^* singer's 
sensations";  but,  as  will  be  explained  later,  this 
expression  is  often  very  loosely  applied.  It  is 
advisable  on  this  account  to  give  a  new  name  to 
the  singer's  sensations,  and  also  to  give  a  name 
to  the  muscular  sensations  awakened  in  the 
hearer.  Let  us  therefore  call  the  sensations 
experienced  by  the  singer  in  the  production  of 
tone  the  ** direct  sensations  of  tone."     To   the 


/ 
MEANS   OF   EMPIEICAL    OBSEBVATION  161 

imaginary  sensations  of  the  hearer  let  us  give  the 
name,  the  * ^ sympathetic  sensations  of  tone." 

These  two  terms  will  be  used  throughout  the 
remainder  of  this  work  in  the  meanings  here 
given  to  them. 

Direct  sensations  of  tone  are  the  sensations 
actually  felt  by  the  singer  as  a  result  of  the 
exercise  of  the  vocal  organs. 

Sympathetic  sensations  of  tone  are  the  mus- 
cular sensations  experienced  in  imagination  by 
the  hearer  as  a  result  of  the  listening  to  the  tones 
of  voices  other  than  his  own. 


11 


CHAPTER   II 

SYMPATHETIC  SENSATIONS  OF  VOCAL  TONE 

A  PECULIAR  relation  of  sympathy  exists  between 
the  human  voice  and  the  human  ear.  So  intimate 
is  this  relation  that  the  two  might  almost  be  con- 
sidered as  forming  one  complete  organ.  One 
aspect  of  this  relation  has  already  been  noted, 
the  guidance  of  the  vocal  organs  by  the  sense  of 
hearing.  There  is  now  to  be  considered  another 
feature  of  this  relation  between  voice  and  ear, — 
the  assistance  rendered  by  the  vocal  organs  to 
the  sense  of  hearing. 

That  a  sub-conscious  adjustment  of  the  vocal 
organs  may  supplement  the  sense  of  hearing  in 
the  estimation  of  pitch  is  mentioned  by  Prof. 
Ladd.  Speaking  of  the  ability,  by  no  means 
uncommon,  to  tell  the  pitch  of  any  musical  note 
heard.  Prof.  Ladd  says:  **Such  judgment,  how- 
ever, may  be,  and  ordinarily  is,  much  assisted  by 
auxiliary  discriminations  of  other  sensations 
which   blend    with    those    of   the   musical   tone. 

162 


SYMPATHETIC    SENSATIONS    OF   VOCAL    TONE      163 

Among  such  secondary  helps  the  most  important 
are  the  muscular  sensations  which  accompany  the 
innervation  of  the  larynx  and  other  organs  used 
in  producing  musical  tones.  For  we  ordinarily 
innervate  these  organs  (at  least  in  an  inchoate 
and  partial  way) — that  is,  we  sound  the  note  to 
ourselves — when  trying  carefully  to  judge  of  its 
pitch."  {Elements  of  Physiological  Psychology,) 

Much  more  important  in  the  study  of  the  prob- 
lem of  tone-production  are  the  adjustments  of 
the  hearer's  vocal  organs  which  were  named  the 
sjanpathetic  sensations  of  tone.  This  peculiar 
auxiliary  to  the  sense  of  hearing  calls  for  the 
closest  attention. 

Sympathetic  sensations  of  tone  are  awakened 
in  the  hearer  through  the  mere  listening  to  the 
sounds  of  the  human  voice.  Vocal  tones  impress 
the  listener's  ear  in  a  manner  entirely  different 
from  any  other  sounds.  Not  only  are  the  tones 
of  the  voice  heard,  just  as  other  sounds  are  heard ; 
in  addition  to  this,  every  vocal  tone  heard  is 
mentally  imitated,  and  this  mental  reproduction 
of  the  tone  is  referred  in  imagination  to  the 
hearer's  own  vocal  organs.  Besides  hearing  the 
vocal  tone  as  a  sound  pure  and  simple,  the  lis- 


164  THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   SINGING 

tener  is  also  informed  of  the  manner  of  throat 
action  by  which  the  tone  is  produced. 

This  mental  imitation  and  judgment  of  vocal 
tones  is  not  a  voluntary  operation.  On  the  con- 
trary it  cannot  even  be  inhibited.  It  is  impos- 
sible for  us  to  listen  to  the  voices  of  those  about 
us,  even  in  ordinary  conversation,  without  being 
to  some  extent  aware  of  the  various  modes  of 
tone-production. 

This  idea  of  the  mental  imitation  of  voices  may 
impress  us  at  first  as  highly  mysterious.  Sympa- 
thetic sensations  of  tone  have  been  felt  and  noted, 
probably  ever  since  the  human  voice  and  the 
human  ear  were  developed.  Yet  the  process  is 
purely  sub-conscious.  It  is  performed  involun- 
tarily, without  thought  on  the  part  of  the  hearer, 
even  without  any  consciousness  of  the  process. 
The  hearer  simply  knows  how  the  voices  to  which 
he  listens  are  produced.  A  throaty  voice  simply 
sounds  throaty;  the  hearer  feels  this,  and  pays 
no  attention  to  the  source  of  the  information. 
"We  take  it  as  a  matter  of  course  that  a  nasal 
voice  seems  to  come  through  the  speaker's  nose. 
Why  a  certain  quality  of  sound  gives  this  im- 
pression we  never  stop  to  inquire.     The  impres- 


SYMPATHETIC    SENSATIONS    OF   VOCAL    TONE      165 

sions  of  throat  action  conveyed  by  other  people's 
voices  seem  so  simple  and  direct  that  nobody 
appears  to  have  thought  to  analyze  the  psycho- 
logical process  involved. 

This  psychological  process  is  found  on  analysis 
to  be  highly  complex.  In  addition  to  the  actual 
physical  exercise  of  the  sense  of  hearing,  three 
distinct  operations  are  performed  in  imagination. 
These  are  the  mental  imitation  of  the  tone,  the 
imagined  adjustments  of  the  vocal  organs,  and 
the  imaginative  exercise  of  the  muscular  sense. 
Although  simultaneously  performed,  each  of  these 
four  operations  may  be  considered  separately. 

Hearing 
As  the  judgment  of  vocal  tones  by  sympa- 
thetic sensations  is  purely  a  function  of  the 
sense  of  hearing,  the  keenness  of  these  sensa- 
tions varies  in  each  individual  in  proportion  to 
the  keenness  of  the  ear.  It  would  be  a  great  mis- 
take to  assert  that  we  all  feel  these  sympathetic 
sensations  with  equal  vividness.  On  the  con- 
trary, many  people  are  so  inattentive  to  the 
qualities  of  sounds  that  they  hardly  know  the 
meaning  of  the  term  '* nasal  tone." 


166  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

One  trait  in  particular  distinguishes  the  musi- 
cian and  the  music  lover;  this  is,  the  possession 
of  a  keen  sense  of  hearing.  The  ear  is  trained 
by  exercise  in  its  own  function, — ^hearing.  The 
more  attentively  we  listen  to  music  the  higher  do 
we  develop  our  ability  to  discriminate  between 
musical  sounds.  Moreover,  natural  endowments 
vary  in  different  individuals,  with  regard  to  the 
ear,  as  with  all  other  human  faculties.  To  appre- 
ciate fully  the  wonderful  insight  into  vocal  opera- 
tions conveyed  by  the  sympathetic  sensations  of 
tone,  a  naturally  keen  musical  ear  is  required; 
further,  this  natural  gift  of  a  good  ear  must  be 
developed  by  attentive  listening  to  music,  vocal 
and  instrumental,  carried  on  through  several 
years. 

Mental  Imitation  of  Vocal  Tones 

That  every  sense  has  its  counterpart  in  the 
imagination  need  hardly  be  said.  "We  know  what 
it  means  to  feel  warm  or  cold,  hungry  or  thirsty; 
we  know  the  taste  of  an  apple,  the  scent  of  a  rose 
We  can  at  will  create  pictures  before  the  mind^s 
eye.  In  the  same  way  we  can  hear  in  imagination 
any  sound  we  choose  to  produce  mentally. 

An  inseparable  function  of  the  sense  of  hearing 


SYMPATHETIC    SENSATIONS   OF   VOCAL   TONE      167 

is  the  impulse  to  imitate  mentally  the  tones  of 
speakers  and  singers.  The  imitation  of  sounds 
is  an  instinctive  operation.  '^Talking  proper 
does  not  set  in  till  the  instinct  to  imitate  sounds 
ripens  in  the  nervous  system."  (The  Principles 
of  Psychology,  Wm.  James,  N.  Y.,  1890.)  Little 
can  be  said  about  the  impulse  to  imitate  voices 
mentally,  further  than  that  it  is  an  exercise  of 
this  same  instinct. 

Imagined  Adjustments  of  the  Vocal  Organs 
It  has  already  been  seen  that  the  vocal  organs 
have  the  ability  to  adjust  themselves,  through 
instinctive  guidance,  for  the  production  of  any 
tone  demanded  by  the  ear.  This  same  ability  is 
invoked  in  the  mental  imitation  of  tones.  In  one 
case  the  muscular  contractions  are  actually  per- 
formed; in  the  other  the  muscular  adjustments 
are  wholly  or  in  part  imaginary. 

It  is  highly  probable  that  actual  contractions 
of  the  laryngeal  muscles  take  place,  under  certain 
conditions,  as  an  accompaniment  to  the  listening 
to  voices.  This  is  evident  in  the  case  of  extremely 
aggravated  throaty  and  forced  voices.  In  listen- 
ing to  the  harsh,  raucous  cries  of  many  street, 


168  THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   SINGING 

venders,  when  calling  out  their  wares,  the  hearer 
frequently  feels  a  sense  of  actual  pain  in  his  own 
throat. 

Involuntary  and  unconscious  contractions  of 
the  laryngeal  muscles,  somewhat  similar  to  those 
under  consideration,  are  well  known  to  experi- 
mental psychologists.  Prof.  Ladd's  statement 
that  these  contractions  assist  the  ear  in  the  judg- 
ment of  absolute  pitch  has  already  been  cited. 
Another  example  of  unconscious  laryngeal  move- 
ments has  been  investigated  by  Hansen  and 
Lehmann  (^^Ueber  unwillkuerliches  Fluestern," 
Philos.  Studien,  1895,  Vol.  XI,  p.  47),  and  by  H.  S. 
Curtis  (** Automatic  Movements  of  the  Larynx," 
Amer,  Jour,  Psych.,  1900,  Vol.  XI,  p.  237).  The 
laboratory  experiments  of  these  investigators 
show  that  when  words,  or  ideas  definitely  ex- 
pressed in  words,  are  strongly  thought  but  not 
uttered,  the  vocal  organs  unconsciously  adjust 
themselves  to  the  positions  necessary  for  uttering 
the  words.  Curtis  says  of  these  unconscious 
laryngeal  contractions:  '^Such  movements  are 
very  common  with  normal  people,  and  are  com- 
paratively easy  of  demonstration," 

The  apparatus  used  by  Hansen  and  Lehmann 


SYMPATHETIC    SENSATIONS    OF   VOCAL   TONE      169 

in  their  experiments  consists  of  two  large  concave 
reflectors.  These  are  placed  at  a  convenient  dis- 
tance, one  facing  the  other,  so  that  two  experi- 
menters may  be  seated,  the  first  having  his  mouth 
at  the  focal  point  of  one  reflector,  the  second  with 
his  ear  at  the  focal  point  of  the  other.  As  the 
first  experimenter  repeats  mentally  any  words  or 
phrases,  these  are  found  to  be  unconsciously 
whispered.  These  sounds  of  whispering,  inau- 
dible under  ordinary  conditions,  are  so  magnified 
by  the  two  reflectors  as  to  be  distinctly  heard  by 
the  second  experimenter. 

Curtis  proved  that  actual  movements  of  the 
larynx  unconsciously  accompany  intense  thought. 
His  demonstrations  were  conducted  along  lines 
familiar  to  all  students  of  experimental  psy- 
chology. Similar  experiments  would  probably 
show  that  unconscious  movements  of  the  larynx 
also  occur  during  the  listening  to  vocal  tones. 

A  peculiarity  of  the  laryngeal  adjustments 
accompanying  the  listening  to  voices  is  seen  in 
the  fact  that  the  possession  of  a  fine  or  well- 
trained  voice  is  not  required  in  this  process. 
It  does  not  matter  whether  the  physical  organs 
are  capable  of  producing  fine  musical  tones.    The 


170  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

nervous  equipment  alone  is  involved;  this  is  fre- 
quently highly  developed,  even  though  the 
physical  voice  is  very  poor.  A  keen  and  highly- 
trained  ear  is  the  only  requisite.  Players  in  the 
opera  orchestras  often  develop  this  faculty  to  a 
high  degree,  even  though  they  may  never  attempt 
to  sing  a  note. 

Muscular  Sense 

An  exhaustive  analysis  of  the  various  classes 
of  sensations,  commonly  grouped  under  the 
general  heading  of  muscular  sense,  would  in- 
volve a  mass  of  technicalities  not  necessary 
to  the  present  purpose.  It  is  sufficient  to  bear 
in  mind  the  limitations  of  this  sense,  and  to 
notice  what  it  tells  us,  and  what  it  does  not  tell. 

Through  the  exercise  of  the  muscular  sense  we 
are  informed  of  the  movements,  positions,  and 
conditions  of  the  different  parts  of  the  body*  Of 
specific  muscular  contractions  very  little  inf orma^ 
tion  is  conveyed.  Thus,  when  the  arm  is  bent  at 
the  elbow  the  muscular  sensations  of  the  move- 
ment are  clear  and  definite;  but,  under  normal 
conditions,  these  sensations  do  not  inform  us  that 
the  movement  results  from  the  contraction  of  the 


SYMPATHETIC    SENSATIONS    OF    VOCAL    TONE      171 

biceps  muscle.  Knowledge  of  the  muscular  struc- 
ture of  the  body  is  not  involved  in  muscular 
sense.  The  muscular  sensations  of  bending  the 
arm  are  felt  in  precisely  the  same  way  by  the 
professor  of  anatomy  and  the  ignorant  child. 

Further,  no  amount  of  attention  paid  to  mus- 
cular sensations  will  inform  us  exactly  what 
muscles  are  contracted  in  any  complex  action.  A 
single  stroke  in  the  game  of  tennis,  returning  a 
swift  service  for  example,  may  involve  some  con- 
traction of  every  muscle  of  the  entire  body.  A 
skilful  player  may  observe  with  the  utmost  care 
the  muscular  sensations  accompanying  this 
stroke ;  he  would  never  be  able  to  learn  from  these 
sensations  whether  the  number  of  muscles  in  his 
forearm  is  ten  or  one  hundred. 

For  the  same  reason  the  sympathetic  sensa- 
tions of  tone  tell  us  nothing  whatever  of  the 
muscular  structure  of  the  vocal  organs.  When 
listening  to  a  throaty  voice,  we  feel  that  the 
singer's  throat  is  tightened,  stiffened,  or  con- 
tracted. But  no  matter  how  keen  and  vivid  this 
sensation  may  be,  it  leaves  us  in  complete  igno- 
rance of  the  names  and  locations  of  the  mus- 
cles wrongly  contracted.    This  is  true,  however 


172  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

thoroughly  we  may  know  the  anatomy  of  the 
vocal  organs. 

Much  of  the  prevailing  confusion  about  the 
voice  is  due  to  a  misunderstanding  of  this  point. 
When,  for  example,  the  musical  critic  asserted 

that  Mme.  T sang  certain  tones  with  '^  pinched 

glottis,"  he  fell  into  this  error.  His  sympathetic 
sensations  informed  him  of  some  unnecessary 
tightening  of  the  singer's  throat.  From  these 
sensations  he  seems  to  have  inferred  that  the 
glottis-closing  muscles  were  too  strongly  con- 
tracted. This  assumption  was  not  warranted  by 
any  information  conveyed  in  the  sympathetic 
sensations. 

It  is  not  necessary  now  to  determine  to  what 
extent  the  muscular  sensations  accompanying  the 
listening  to  voices  are  purely  imaginative,  and  to 
what  extent  they  result  from  actual,  though  un- 
conscious, contractions  of  the  listener's  throat 
muscles.  The  psychological  process  is  the  same 
in  either  case. 

Sympathetic  sensations  of  tone  always  accom- 
pany the  listening  to  voices.  While  the  psy- 
chological process  is  complex,  this  process  is 
performed  unconsciously  and  involuntarily.    Even 


SYMPATHETIC    SENSATIONS    OF    VOCAL    TONE      173 

though  the  attention  may  be  definitely  turned  to 
the  sympathetic  sensations  themselves,  the  mental 
imitation  and  the  laryngeal  adjustments  seldom 
rise  into  consciousness.  As  a  rule,  the  entire 
operation  is  purely  sub-conscious.  The  listener 
simply  knows  how  the  voices  to  which  he  listens 
are  produced.  This  knowledge  has  always  been 
accepted  as  intuitive;  but  this  is  merely  another 
way  of  saying  that  the  process  of  its  acquirement 
is  sub-conscious. 

Direct  Sensations  of  Tone 

In  addition  to  the  source  of  misunderstand- 
ing of  the  vocal  action  just  mentioned, — the 
attempt  to  define  the  precise  muscular  con- 
tractions indicated  in  the  sympathetic  sensa- 
tions, another  common  misinterpretation  of 
these  sensations  must  be  noted.  As  a  con- 
sequence of  the  sub-conscious  character  of  the 
sympathetic  sensations,  the  two  classes  of  mus- 
cular sensation  of  vocal  tone,  direct  and  sym- 
pathetic, are  frequently  confounded  and  classed 
together  as  the  ''singer's  sensations.''  A  third 
source  of  confusion  is  seen  in  the  attempt  to  apply 
the  sympathetic  sensations,  by  formulating  rules 


174  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

for  the  guidance  of  the  student,  in  performing 
specific  actions  for  the  management  of  the  vocal 
organs.  All  three  of  these  topics  will  be  con- 
sidered in  a  later  chapter.  Before  approaching 
this  subject  let  us  see  just  what  information  may 
be  derived  from  the  observation  of  the  direct 
sensations  of  tone. 

The  direct  sensations  of  tone  are  never  so  vivid, 
so  precise,  nor  so  reliable  as  the  sympathetic 
sensations.  In  other  words,  the  hearer  is  better 
able  to  judge  of  the  singer's  throat  action  than 
the  singer  himself.  This  may  seem  a  paradoxical 
statement,  but  a  brief  consideration  will  show  it 
to  be  fully  justified. 

In  the  case  of  teacher  and  pupil,  it  will  hardly 
be  questioned  that  the  master  hears  the  pupil's 
voice  to  better  advantage  than  the  pupil.  This 
is  also  true  when  a  trained  singer's  tones  are 
observed  by  a  competent  hearer.  The  singer's 
direct  sensations  are  highly  complex.  They 
include  the  muscular  sensations  accompanying  the 
exertion  of  the  breathing  muscles,  and  these  are 
usually  so  intense  as  to  overshadow  the  sensations 
due  to  the  laryngeal  adjustments.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  hearer  is  free  to  pay  close  attention  to 


SYMPATHETIC    SENSATIONS   OF   VOCAL   TONE     175 

the  sensations  of  throat  action,  and  therefore 
feels  these  much  more  keenly  than  does  the 
singer.  On  this  account  the  direct  sensations  of 
tone  are  of  vastly  less  value  in  the  study  of  the 
vocal  action  than  are  the  sympathetic  sensations. 


CHAPTER  III 

EMPIEICAL   KNOWLEDGE    OF    THE    VOICE 

Through  attention  paid  to  the  sympathetic 
sensations  of  tone,  the  listener  may  carry  on 
mentally  a  running  commentary  on  the  throat 
actions  of  all  those  whose  voices  are  heard.  Con- 
tinuing to  use  the  word  empirical  in  the  sense 
thus  far  adopted,  it  may  be  said  that  the  summary 
of  the  impressions  conveyed  in  the  sympathetic 
sensations  of  tone  constitutes  empirical  knowl- 
edge of  the  voice.  In  other  words,  empirical 
knowledge  of  the  voice  is  an  understanding  of  the 
operations  of  the  vocal  mechanism,  obtained 
through  the  attentive  listening  to  voices. 

Let  us  consider  first  the  running  commentary 
on  the  throat  action,  mentally  carried  on  by  the 
listener.  This  mental  commentary  is  an  insepa- 
rable accompaniment  of  the  listening  to  the  voices 
of  others,  whether  in  speech  or  song.  As  we  are 
concerned  now  only  with  the  problem  of  tone- 
production  in  artistic  singing,  our  consideration 

176 


EMPIRICAL   KNOWLEDaE    OF    THE    VOICE         177 

will  be  limited  to  the  critical  hearer's  observation 
of  the  tones  of  singers. 

Let  ns  imagine  two  friends  to  be  seated  side  by 
side  in  the  concert  hall,  listening  to  the  perform- 
ance of  a  violin  sonata  by  an  artist  of  about 
mediocre  ability.  Suppose  one  of  the  friends  to 
be  a  highly  trained  musical  critic,  the  other  to  be 
almost  unacquainted  with  music  of  this  class. 
Let  us  now  inquire  how  the  tones  of  the  violin 
will  impress  these  two  hearers;  and  further,  let 
the  inquiry  be  limited  strictly  to  the  matter  of 
tone,  leaving  out  of  consideration  all  questions 
of  composition  and  rendition. 

As  a  matter  of  course,  the  tones  of  the  violin 
will  impress  these  two  listeners  in  widely  dif- 
ferent ways.  The  untrained  observer  will  greatly 
enjoy  the  beautiful  tones, — supposing  of  course 
that  he  be  gifted  with  a  natural  fondness  for 
music.  But  so  far  as  musical  value  is  concerned, 
all  the  tones  will  sound  to  him  practically  alike. 

For  the  trained  hearer,  on  the  other  hand,  every 
note  drawn  by  the  performer  from  his  instrument 
will  have  a  distinct  value.  Some  of  the  tones  will 
be  true  in  pitch  and  perfect  in  quality.  Some 
will  vary  slightly  from  the  correct  pitch;  others 

12 


178  THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   SINGING 

will  perhaps  be  in  perfect  tune,  and  yet  be  marred 
in  quality  by  faults  of  scratching,  thinness,  rough- 
ness, etc. 

When  the  two  come  to  compare  notes  at  the 
end  of  the  performance  the  trained  critic  will  be 
utterly  unable  to  convey  to  his  friend  his  im- 
pressions of  the  player's  technique.  Vividly 
clear  as  it  is  to  the  critic,  his  understanding  of 
tonal  values  is  lodged  solely  in  his  cultivated  ear. 
This  understanding  cannot  be  imparted  in  words ; 
it  must  be  acquired  by  experience  in  actual  listen- 
ing to  music. 

Let  us  now  imagine  this  same  critic  to  be  lis- 
tening to  a  singer,  not  an  artist  of  the  first  rank, 
but  one  whose  voice  is  marred  by  some  slight 
faults  of  production.  In  this  case  the  critic  will 
note  exactly  the  same  sort  of  differences  in  tonal 
value  as  in  the  case  of  the  violinist.  Some  of  the 
singer's  notes  will  be  perfect  musical  tones, 
others  will  be  marred  by  faults  of  intonation  or 
of  quality.  But  a  great  difference  will  be  noted 
between  faulty  tones  played  on  the  violin,  and 
faulty  tones  sung  by  the  human  voice.  In  addi- 
tion to  their  blemishes  as  musical  tones,  the 
faulty  notes  of  the  voice  also  convey  to  the  critical 


EMPIRICAL    KNOWLEDGE    OF    THE    VOICE        179 

listener  an  idea  of  the  state  of  the  singer's  throat 
in  producing  them. 

Every  blemish  on  the  beauty  of  a  vocal  tone, 
every  fine  shade  of  quality  which  detracts  from 
its  perfection,  indicates  to  the  critical  hearer  some 
faulty  action  of  the  singer's  vocal  organs.  The 
more  faulty  the  musical  character  of  the  singer's 
tones  the  more  pronounced  is  this  impression  of 
faulty  production.  On  the  other  hand,  just  so 
nearly  as  the  singer's  tones  approach  perfection 
as  musical  sounds,  so  do  they  also  impress  the  ear 
of  the  critical  listener  as  indicating  the  approach 
to  the  perfect  vocal  action. 

The  critic  could  not  impart  to  his  untrained 
friend  the  impressions  made  by  the  violinist's 
tones.  Somewhat  the  same  is  true  of  the  im- 
pressions made  by  the  tones  of  the  voice  on  the 
critical  ear.  In  voices  of  extremely  nasal  or 
throaty  sound  these  blemishes  can,  of  course,  be 
detected  by  the  ordinary  hearer.  But  the  fine 
shades  of  difference  in  vocal  tone  quality,  heard 
by  the  trained  critic,  cannot  be  noted  by  the  inex- 
perienced listener. 

This  fine  ability  to  discriminate  between  musical 
sounds  comes  only  through  experience  in  listen- 


180  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

ing  to  music,  better  still,  when  this  has  been  com- 
bined with  the  actual  study  of  music.  But  the 
ability  to  judge  the  vocal  actions  of  singers, 
through  the  sympathetic  sensations  of  tone,  does 
not  depend  on  any  actual  exercise  of  the  listener's 
own  voice.  For  the  developing  of  this  ability 
the  exercise  of  the  ear  suffices.  The  mere  exer- 
cise of  the  ear,  in  listening  to  singers,  entails  also 
the  training  of  what  may  be  called  the  *^  mental 
voice.''  Attentive  listening  to  voices,  involving 
as  a  natural  consequence  the  sub-conscious  im- 
pressions of  sympathetic  sensations,  results  in  the 
development  of  a  faculty  to  which  this  name,  the 
mental  voice,  very  aptly  applies. 

A  music-lover  whose  experience  of  hearing 
singing  and  instrumental  music  has  been  wide 
enough  to  develop  the  mental  voice  in  a  fair 
degree,  possesses  in  this  faculty  a  valuable  means 
for  judging  singers.  The  mental  voice  carries 
on  a  running  commentary  on  the  manner  of  pro- 
duction of  all  the  voices  to  which  this  music-lover 
listens.  At  every  instant  he  is  informed  of  the 
exact  condition  of  the  singer's  throat.  For  him 
there  is  an  almost  infinite  variety  of  throaty 
tones,  each  one  indicating  some  degree  and  form 


EMPIEICAL    KNOWLEDGE    OF    THE    VOICE         181 

of  throat  tension  or  stiffening.  A  perfect  vocal 
tone,  on  the  other  hand,  is  felt  to  be  perfectly- 
produced,  as  well  as  heard  to  be  musically  perfect. 

Equipped  with  a  highly  trained  sense  of  hear- 
ing, and  the  resulting  faculty  of  mental  voice, 
the  lover  of  singing  has  an  unfailing  insight  into 
the  operations  of  the  vocal  mechanism.  This 
understanding  of  the  workings  of  the  vocal  organs 
is  the  empirical  knowledge  of  the  voice. 

This  empirical  knowledge  of  the  voice  can  be 
possessed  only  by  one  who  is  equipped  with  a 
highly  cultivated  ear.  The  keener  the  ear  the 
more  precise  and  definite  is  this  understanding 
of  the  voice.  Season  after  season,  as  the  music- 
lover  continues  to  attend  concerts,  operas,  and 
recitals,  his  feeling  for  the  voice  becomes  grad- 
ually more  keen  and  discerning. 

Further,  empirical  knowledge  of  the  voice  can 
be  acquired  in  no  other  way  than  by  actual 
experience  in  listening  to  voices.  No  matter  how 
keen  and  definite  are  the  impressions  of  throat 
action  felt  by  the  experienced  hearer,  these  im- 
pressions cannot  be  described  to  the  uninitiated. 
In  fact,  these  impressions  are  to  a  great  extent 
of  a  character  not  capable  of  being  recorded  in 


182  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

precise  terms.  The  general  nature  of  a  throaty 
tone,  for  example,  is  thoroughly  understood.  But 
of  the  thousands  of  varieties  of  the  throaty  tone 
no  adequate  description  can  be  given.  Each 
observer  must  learn  for  himself  to  hear  these  fine 
shades  of  difference  in  tone  quality. 

Every  experienced  music  lover  has  his  own 
mental  standard  of  tonal  perfection.  The  trained 
ear  knows  how  a  perfect  musical  tone  should 
sound,  independent  of  the  precise  quality  of  the 
tone.  The  tone  quality  is  determined,  of  course, 
by  the  instrument  on  which  it  is  sounded.  But 
along  with  the  individual  characteristics  of  the 
sound,  the  tones  drawn  from  every  instrument, 
to  be  available  in  the  artistic  performance  of 
music,  must  conform  to  the  correct  standard. 
Knowing  the  general  musical  character  of  the 
tones  of  all  instruments,  the  cultured  hearer  can 
at  once  detect  any  variation  from  this  character. 
Further,  he  knows  how  the  tones  of  a  badly-played 
instrument  would  sound  if  the  instrument  were 
correctly  handled.  An  unskilled  trumpeter  in  an 
orchestra,  for  example,  may  draw  from  his  instru- 
ment tones  that  are  too  brassy,  blatant,  or  harsh. 
An  observant  hearer  knows  exactly  what  these 


EMPIRICAL   KNOWLEDGE   OF   THE   VOICE        183 

tones  would  be  if  the  instruinent  were  skilfully 
played. 

In  just  the  same  way  the  mental  voice  has  its 
own  standard  of  vocal  perfection.  Every  voice 
which  falls  below  this  standard  is  felt  by  the 
critical  hearer  to  be  imperfectly  used.  When 
listening  to  a  nasal  singer  we  know  that  the  voice 
would  be  greatly  improved  in  quality  if  the  nasal 
sound  of  the  tones  were  eliminated.  We  feel  that 
the  correction  of  the  faults  of  production  indi- 
cated by  a  throaty  voice  would  add  greatly  to  the 
beauty  of  the  voice.  More  than  this,  we  can  also 
form  some  idea  how  an  imperfectly  produced 
voice  would  sound  if  all  the  faults  of  vocal  action 
were  to  be  corrected. 

A  perfectly  produced  voice  affects  the  ear  in  a 
peculiar  and  distinct  way.  Not  only  is  such  a 
voice  free  from  faults ;  it  has  also,  on  the  positive 
side,  a  peculiar  character  which  renders  it  entirely 
different  from  any  wrongly  used  voice.  The 
cultured  hearer  is  impressed  with  a  sense  of 
incompleteness  and  insufficiency  in  listening  to  a 
voice  which  does  not  ^*come  out''  in  a  thoroughly 
satisfactory  manner.  This  is  true,  even  though 
the  voice  is  not  marred  by  any  distinct  fault. 


184  THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   SINGING 

A  voice  absolutely  perfect  in  its  production 
awakens  a  peculiar  set  of  sympathetic  sensations. 
In  addition  to  its  musical  beauty  such  a  voice 
satisfies  an  instinctive  demand  for  the  perfect 
vocal  action.  An  indescribable  sensation  of 
physical  satisfaction  is  experienced  in  listening  to 
a  perfectly  managed  voice. 

On  further  consideration  of  this  feeling  of 
physical  satisfaction  awakened  by  a  perfectly 
produced  voice^  it  seems  a  mistake  to  call  it  inde- 
scribable. A  beautiful  description  of  this  set  of 
sympathetic  sensations  has  been  handed  down  to 
us  by  the  masters  of  the  old  Italian  school.  This 
description  is  embodied  in  two  of  the  traditional 
precepts,  those  dealing  with  the  open  throat  and 
the  support  of  the  tone. 

Mention  of  the  traditional  precepts  leads  at 
once  to  the  consideration  of  another  aspect  of  the 
empirical  knowledge  of  the  voice.  Vocalists  have 
been  attentively  listening  to  voices  since  the 
beginning  of  the  modern  art  of  singing.  Al- 
though many  of  the  impressions  made  by  the  voice 
on  the  ear  cannot  be  expressed  in  words,  one  set 
of  impressions  has  been  clearly  recorded.  A 
marked  difference  was  evidently  noticed  by  the 


EMPIRICAL   KNOWLEDGE    OF    THE    VOICE        185 

old  Italian  masters  between  tlie  feelings  awakened 
in  tEe  hearer  by  a  voice  properly  managed  and 
those  awakened  by  an  incorrectly  produced  voice. 
These  impressions  were  embodied  in  a  set  of 
precepts  for  the  guidance  of  the  singer,  which  are 
none  other  than  the  much- discussed  traditional 
precepts. 

In  other  words,  the  traditional  precepts  embody 
the  results  of  the  old  masters'  empirical  study  of 
the  voice.  Considered  in  this  light,  the  old  pre- 
cepts lose  at  once  all  air  of  mystery  and  become 
perfectly  intelligible  and  coherent.  To  a  con- 
sideration of  this  record  of  the  empirical  knowl- 
edge of  the  voice  the  following  chapter  is  devoted. 


CHAPTER   IV 

THE   TEADITIONAL  PEECEPTS  OF   THE  OLD   ITALIAN 

SCHOOL 

There  should  be  nothing  mysterious,  nothing 
hard  to  understand,  about  the  empirical  precepts. 
It  was  pointed  out  in  Chapter  V  of  Part  I  that 
these  precepts  contain  a  perfect  description  of 
correctly  produced  vocal  tone,  so  far  as  the 
impression  on  the  listener  is  concerned.  This 
means  nothing  else  than  that  the  old  precepts 
summarize  the  results  of  empirical  observation 
of  correct  singing.  There  is  nothing  new  in  this 
statement;  considered  as  empirical  knowledge, 
the  modern  vocal  teacher  understands  the  mean- 
ing of  the  old  masters'  precepts  perfectly  well. 
The  misunderstanding  of  the  subject  begins  with 
the  attempt  to  apply  the  precepts  as  specific  rules 
for  the  direct  mechanical  management  of  the 
voice.  In  this  connection  they  were  seen  to  be 
valueless.  Let  us  now  see  if  the  old  precepts  are 
found  to  contain  any  meaning  of  value  to  the 

186 


THE    TRADITIONAL   PRECEPTS  187 

vocal  teacher  when  considered  as  purely  empirical 
formulsB. 

Each  one  of  the  precepts  may  be  said  to  de- 
scribe some  special  characteristic  of  the  perfect 
vocal  tone,  considered  solely  as  a  sound.  These 
characteristics  may  each  be  considered  sepa- 
rately, that  is,  the  hearer  may  voluntarily  pay 
close  attention  to  any  special  aspect  of  the  vocal 
tone.  The  best  plan  for  arriving  at  the  exact 
meaning  of  the  precepts  is  therefore  to  consider 
each  one  in  turn. 

The  Forward  Tone 

Every  lover  of  singing  is  familiar  with  this 
characteristic  of  the  perfectly  produced  voice; 
the  sound  seems  to  come  directly  from  the 
singer's  mouth,  and  gives  no  indication  of  being 
formed  at  the  back  of  the  throat.  This  charac- 
teristic of  the  perfect  tone  is  simply  heard.  It  is 
not  distinguished  by  any  sympathetic  sensations, 
but  is  purely  a  matter  of  sound.  On  the  other 
hand,  a  wrongly  produced  voice  seems  to  be 
formed  or  held  in  the  back  of  the  singer's  throat. 
The  tones  of  such  a  voice  do  not  come  out  satis- 


188  THE   PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

factorily;  they  seem  to  be  lodged  in  the  throat 
instead  of  at  the  front  of  the  mouth. 

In  the  badly  used  voice  the  impression  of 
throat  is  conveyed  by  the  sympathetic  sensations 
awakened  in  the  hearer.  A  striking  difference 
between  correct  and  incorrect  singing  is  thus 
noted.  A  wrongly  produced  voice  is  felt  by  the 
hearer  to  be  held  in  the  singer's  throat.  When 
properly  used  the  voice  gives  no  impression  of 
throat ;  it  seems  to  have  no  relation  to  the  throat, 
but  to  be  formed  in  the  front  of  the  mouth. 

So  much  has  been  written  about  ^^  forward 
emission''  that  the  forward  characteristic  of 
vocal  tones  seems  to  be  enshrouded  in  mystery. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  forward  tone  is  easily 
explained.  The  perfectly  produced  voice  issues 
directly  from  the  mouth  for  the  same  reason  that 
the  tones  of  the  trombone  issue  from  the  bell  of 
the  instrument.  It  is  all  a  matter  of  resonance. 
This  is  well  illustrated  by  a  simple  experiment 
with  a  tuning  fork  and  a  spherical  resonator 
reinforcing  the  tone  of  the  fork. 

When  the  fork  is  struck,  the  ear  hears  the  sound 
issuing  from  the  resonator,  not  that  coming 
direct  from  the  fork.     This  is  brought  out  dis- 


THE    TRADITIONAL   PRECEPTS  189 

tinctly  by  placing  the  fork  at  a  little  distance 
from  the  resonator.  The  listener  can  then  defi- 
nitely locate  the  source  of  the  sound  which 
impresses  the  ear.  Under  these  circumstances 
the  sound  coming  from  the  resonator  is  found  to 
be  many  times  more  powerful  than  that  coming 
direct  from  the  tuning  fork.  If  left  to  its  own 
judgment  the  ear  takes  the  resonator  to  be  the 
original  source  of  the  sound. 

In  the  voice  the  exciting  cause  of  the  air  vibra- 
tions is  located  at  the  back  of  the  resonator, — the 
mouth-pharynx  cavity.  The  sound  waves  in  this 
case  can  issue  only  from  the  front  of  the  res- 
onator,— the  singer's  mouth.  No  matter  how  the 
voice  is  produced,  correctly  or  badly,  this  acoustic 
principle  must  apply. 

Why  then  does  not  the  incorrectly  used  voice 
impress  the  hearer  as  issuing  directly  from  the 
mouth,  the  same  as  the  correctly  produced  tone? 
This  is  purely  a  matter  of  sympathetic  sensations 
of  throat  tightness,  awakened  by  the  faulty  tone. 
Every  wrongly  used  voice  arouses  in  the  listener 
sympathetic  sensations  of  throat  contraction. 
This  impression  of  throat,  noted  by  the  hearer. 


190  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

consists  of  muscular,  not  of  strictly  auditory- 
sensations. 

As  a  statement  of  scientific  fact,  the  forward- 
tone  precept  is  erroneous.  It  does  not  describe 
scientifically  the  difference  between  correct  and 
incorrect  tone-production.  Correctly  sung  tones 
are  not  produced  at  the  lips.  Every  vocal  tone, 
good  or  bad,  is  produced  by  the  motion  of  the 
vocal  cords  and  reinforced  by  the  resonance  of 
the  mouth-pharynx  cavity.  Only  when  considered 
as  an  empirical  description  is  the  forward-tone 
precept  of  value.  In  this  sense  the  precept 
describes  accurately  the  difference  in  the  im- 
pressions made  on  the  hearer  by  correct  and 
incorrect  singing.  A  badly  produced  tone  seems 
to  be  caught  in  the  singer's  throat;  the  correctly 
used  voice  is  free  from  this  fault,  and  is  therefore 
heard  to  issue  directly  from  the  singer's  mouth. 

This  marked  difference  between  correct  and 
incorrect  tone  throws  a  valuable  light  on  the 
meaning  of  the  correct  vocal  action.  Every 
badly  used  voice  gives  the  impression  of  wrong 
or  unnecessary  tightness,  stiffening,  and  con- 
traction of  the  throat.  When  perfectly  used,  the 
voice  does  not  convey  any  such  impression  of 
throat  stiffness. 


THE   TEADITIONAL   PEECEPTS  191 

ThC'  Open  Throat 

Just  as  with  the  forward  tone,  the  meaning  of 
the  open  throat  is  best  brought  out  by  contrasting 
the  impressions  made  on  the  hearer  by  a  perfect 
and  a  badly  used  voice.  A  badly  produced  tone 
seems  to  be  caught,  or  as  Tosi  expressed  it, 
^'choaked  in  the  throat."  The  singer's  throat 
seems  to  be  tightened  and  narrowed  so  that  the 
sound  has  not  sufficient  passageway  to  come  out 
properly.  On  the  other  hand,  the  perfectly  used 
voice  comes  out  freely,  without  interference  or 
hindrance  at  any  point  in  the  singer's  throat. 
There  seems  to  be  plenty  of  room  for  the  tone 
to  come  forth;  in  other  words,  the  singer's  throat 
seems  to  be  open. 

All  these  impressions  are  purely  a  matter  of 
sympathetic  sensations.  In  listening  to  a  faulty 
singer  the  hearer  feels  a  sensation  of  tightness 
and  contraction  of  the  throat.  A  well  used  voice 
awakens  exactly  the  opposite  sensation,  that  of 
looseness  and  freedom  of  the  throat. 

Here  again  is  seen  the  difference  between  cor- 
rect and  incorrect  singing,  empirically  considered. 
Judging  from  the  impressions  made  by  rightly 
and  wrongly  used   voices,   any  incorrect  vocal 


192  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

action  involves  a  condition  of  tightness  and  con- 
traction of  the  throat.  Perfect  singing  gives  the 
impression  that  the  throat  is  loose  and  supple, 
and  free  from  all  unnecessary  tension. 

The  Support  of  the  Tone 

Following  the  plan  of  contrasting  correct  and 
incorrect  singing,  the  meaning  of  this  precept  is 
readily  found.  The  perfect  voice  is  felt  by  the 
hearer  to  be  firmly  and  confidently  held  by  the 
singer  in  a  secure  grasp  of  the  throat  muscles. 
Such  a  voice  awakens  the  sympathetic  sensations 
of  perfectly  balanced  muscular  effect,  similar  to 
the  muscular  sensations  of  the  hand  and  forearm 
when  an  object  is  firmly  grasped  in  the  hand. 

A  badly  used  voice  seems  to  be  convulsively 
gripped  in  the  singer's  throat.  The  tones  seem 
to  fall  back  into  the  throat  for  want  of  some 
secure  base  on  which  to  rest.  This  impression  is 
conveyed  by  a  peculiar  set  of  sympathetic  sensa- 
tions of  highly  unpleasant  muscular  tension  far 
back  in  the  throat. 

This  precept,  *' Support  the  tone,"  points  to  the 
difference  already  noted  between  the  right  and 
the  wrong  vocal  action.    Badly  produced  tones 


THE    TEADITIONAL    PRECEPTS  193 

indicate  a  state  of  excessive  tension  of  the  throat 
muscles.  Correct  singing  gives  the  impression 
that  the  throat  muscles  exert  exactly  the  requisite 
degree  of  strength,  and  no  more. 

Taken  together,  the  open-throat  and  the  for- 
ward-tone precepts  embody  an  admirable  descrip- 
tion of  the  sympathetic  sensations  awakened  by 
perfect  singing.  The  singer's  entire  vocal  mech- 
anism is  felt  to  be  in  a  condition  of  lithe  and 
supple  freedom.  There  is  no  straining,  no  con- 
straint, no  forcing,  no  unnecessary  tension.  Each 
muscle  of  the  vocal  mechanism,  and  indeed  of  the 
entire  body,  exerts  just  the  necessary  degree  of 
strength. 

Similar  muscular  sensations  always  accompany 
the  expert  performance  of  any  action  requiring  a 
high  degree  of  dexterity.  Whatever  be  the  form 
of  exertion,  skilful  physical  activity  awakens 
muscular  sensations  of  perfectly  balanced  and 
harmonized  contractions.  This  feeling  of  mus- 
cular poise  and  adjustment  is  pleasurable  in  a 
high  degree. 

A  keen  enjoyment  is  experienced  in  the  skilful 
performance  of  many  complex  muscular  activities. 
Much  of  the  pleasure  of  skating,  dancing,  rowing, 

13 


194  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

tennis,  etc.,  is  dependent  on  this  feeling  of  mus- 
cular poise  and  harmonious  contraction.  Healthy 
exercise  is  always  normally  enjoyable ;  but  skilful 
performance  greatly  enhances  the  pleasure.  A 
beginner  learning  to  skate,  for  example,  exerts 
himself  fully  as  much  as  the  accomplished  skater. 
Yet  the  beginner  does  not  by  any  means  derive 
the  same  degree  of  pleasure  from  his  exertions. 

Precisely  this  feeling  of  balanced  and  harmo- 
nious muscular  exertion  is  experienced  by  the 
perfect  singer.  More  than  this,  the  hearer  also, 
through  sympathetic  sensations,  shares  the  same 
pleasurable  feeling.  This  is  the  sensation  de- 
scribed as  the  feeling  of  soaring,  of  poise,  and  of 
floating,  in  many  descriptions  of  the  ** singer's 
sensations." 

Singing  on  the  Breath 

When  the  voice  is  perfectly  used  the  tones  seem 
to  detach  themselves  from  the  singer,  and  to  float 
off  on  the  breath.  Nothing  in  the  sound  of  the 
tones,  nor  in  the  sympathetic  sensations  awak- 
ened, gives  any  indication  that  the  breath  is 
checked  or  impeded  in  its  flow.  The  current  of 
tone  seems  to  be  poured  out  on  the  breath  just  as 


THE    TKADITIONAL    PEECEPTS  195 

freely  as  a  quiet  expiration  in  ordinary  breathing. 

This  is  a  purely  empirical  description  of  per- 
fect singing.  As  we  Imow  very  well,  the  vocal 
action  is  quite  different  from  this  description. 
But  the  important  point  is  that  the  phrase  * '  sing- 
ing on  the  breath''  does  very  accurately  describe 
the  impression  made  on  the  hearer  by  perfect 
singing. 

Singing  on  the  breath  represents  the  highest 
possible  degree  of  purely  vocal  perfection.  One 
may  attend  operas  and  concerts  for  a  whole 
season  and  listen  to  a  score  of  famous  singers, 
and  count  oneself  fortunate  to  have  heard  even 
one  artist  who  attains  this  standard  of  tonal 
excellence.  Singing  on  the  breath  is  an  effect  of 
wondrous  tonal  beauty;  it  is  simply  this,  pure 
beauty,  pristine  and  naive. 

With  the  slightest  degree  of  throat  stiffness  or 
muscular  tension,  singing  on  the  breath  is  utterly 
impossible.  So  soon  as  the  tones  indicate  the 
merest  trace  of  throat  contraction,  the  free  outflow 
of  the  stream  of  sound  is  felt  to  be  checked. 

Coloratura  singing,  to  be  absolutely  perfect, 
demands  this  degree  of  tonal  excellence.  Singing 
on  the  breath  and  coloratura  are  indeed  very 


196  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

closely  allied.  The  modern  school  of  musical 
criticism  does  not  hold  coloratura  singing  in  very 
high  esteem.  We  demand  nowadays  expression, 
passion,  and  emotion;  we  want  vocal  music  to 
portray  definite  sentiments,  to  express  concrete 
feelings.  Florid  singing  is  not  adapted  to  this 
form  of  expressiveness.  It  is  only  sensuously 
beautiful ;  it  speaks  to  the  ear,  but  does  not  appeal 
to  the  intellect. 

Yet  it  may  well  be  asked  whether  the  highest 
type  of  coloratura  singing,  pure  tonal  beauty, 
does  not  appeal  to  a  deeper,  more  elemental  set 
of  emotions  than  are  reached  by  dramatically 
expressive  singing.  This  question  would  call  for 
a  profound  psychological  discussion,  hardly  in 
place  in  a  work  devoted  to  the  technical  problem 
of  tone-production.  But  this  much  is  certain: 
Coloratura  singing  still  has  a  strong  hold  on  the 
affections  of  the  music  loving  public.  Even  to- 
day audiences  are  moved  by  the  vocal  feats  of 
some  famous  queen  of  song  fully  as  profoundly 
as  by  the  performance  of  a  modern  dramatic  or 
[realistic  opera. 

To  describe  a  sound  is  an  extremely  difficult 
task.     The  tone  of  the  muted  horn,  for  example, 


THE    TEADITIONAL   PRECEPTS  197 

is  perfectly  familiar  to  the  average  musician. 
Yet  who  would  undertake  to  describe  in  words 
the  tone  of  the  muted  horn?  A  description  of  the 
sounds  produced  by  a  perfectly  managed  voice  is 
almost  as  difficult  to  frame  in  words.  Still  the 
old  Italian  masters  succeeded  in  finding  words 
to  describe  perfect  singing.  These  few  simple 
phrases — open  the  throat,  support  the  tone,  sing 
the  tones  forward,  sing  on  the  breath — embody  a 
most  beautiful  and  complete  description  of  vocal 
perfection.  The  empirical  study  of  the  voice  can 
hardly  be  expected  to  go  further  than  this.  From 
the  old  masters  we  have  received  a  complete 
record  of  all  that  need  be  known  empirically 
about  the  voice. 


CHAPTER  V 

EMPIEICAL  KNOWLEDGE  IN  MODEEN  VOICE  CULTUEE 

It  was  pointed  out  in  Chapter  I  of  Part  III 
that  there  is  no  possibility  of  conflict  between 
empirical  and  scientific  knowledge.  Modern 
Voice  Culture  seems  to  present  a  direct  contra- 
diction of  this  statement.  The  vocal  teacher's 
empirical  understanding  of  the  voice  conflicts  at 
every  step  with  his  supposedly  scientific  knowl- 
edge. No  doubt  the  reader  is  already  aware  of 
the  real  meaning  of  this  apparent  contradiction. 
It  only  bears  out  the  philosophic  rule ;  an  accepted 
science  must  be  abandoned  so  soon  as  its  deduc- 
tions are  found  to  be  not  in  accord  with  observed 
facts. 

Modern  methods  of  instruction  in  singing  can 
be  understood  only  by  following  out  this  idea 
of  conflict  between  known  facts  and  accepted, 
though  erroneous,  scientific  doctrines.  As  we 
have  seen,  the  only  universally  accepted  theory 
of  supposedly  scientific  Voice  Culture  is  the  idea 

198 


EMPIRICAL   KNOWLEDGE  199 

of  direct  mechanical  guidance  of  the  voice.  Every 
vocal  teacher  attempts  to  make  his  empirical 
knowledge  conform  to  this  mechanical  idea./As 
the  empirical  knowledge  is  correct,  and  the  me- 
chanical idea  a  complete  mistake,  conflict  between 
the  two  is  inevitable.     \ 

Every  modern  teacher  of  singing  possesses  in 
full  measure  the  empirical  understanding  of  the 
voice.  To  this  statement  hardly  an  exception 
need  be  made.  Probably  the  most  startling  fact 
concerning  the  wide  diffusion  of  this  knowledge 
is  that  the  nature  of  this  knowledge  is  so 
thoroughly  ignored.  Because  the  psychological 
process  is  purely  sub-conscious,  empirical  knowl- 
edge is  always  indirectly  and  generally  uncon- 
sciously applied.  In  the  teacher's  mind  the  most 
prominent  idea  is  that  of  mechanical  vocal  guid- 
ance. His  attention  is  always  directly  turned  to 
this  idea.  Empirical  knowledge,  consisting  merely 
of  a  succession  of  auditory  and  muscular  sensa- 
tions, lurks  in  the  background  of  consciousness. 

To  the  intelligent  vocal  teacher  there  is  some- 
thing peculiarly  fascinating  about  the  study  of 
tone-production.  In  listening  to  any  faulty  singer 
we  feel  with  the  utmost  precision  what  is  wrong 


200  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

with  the  voice.  Each  imperfect  tone  informs  us 
clearly  and  definitely  just  where  the  wrong  mus- 
cular contraction  is  located.  It  seems  so  easy  to 
tell  the  singer  what  to  do  in  order  to  bring  the 
tone  out  perfectly.  Under  the  influence  of  the 
mechanical  idea  we  try  to  express  this  feeling 
in  the  terms  of  muscular  action.  This  attempt 
is  never  successful ;  the  singer  cannot  be  brought 
to  understand  our  meaning.  Yet  it  is  so  clear  in 
our  own  minds  that  our  inability  to  express  it 
is  extremely  tantalizing.  We  go  on,  constantly 
hoping  to  find  a  way  to  define  the  mechanical 
processes  so  clearly  indicated  to  the  ear.  We 
always  feel  that  we  are  just  on  the  verge  of  the 
great  discovery.  The  solution  of  the  problem  of 
tone-production  is  almost  within  our  grasp,  yet  it 
always  eludes  us. 

It  was  stated  in  Chapter  V  of  Part  I  that 
empirical  knowledge  of  the  voice,  based  on  the 
singer's  sensations,  is  used  to  supplement  and 
interpret  the  doctrmes  of  mechanical  vocal  guid- 
ance. This  is  in  the  main  true,  so  far  as  the 
vocal  teacher  is  aware.  But  here  again  the  result 
of  the  sub-conscious  character  of  empirical  knowl- 
edge of  the  voice  is  seen.    As  a  matter  of  fact  the 


EMPIRICAL   KNOWLEDGE  201 

real  situation  is  the  direct  reverse  of  that  de- 
scribed in  the  chapter  mentioned.  The  mechanical 
doctrines  are  used  in  the  attempt  to  interpret  the 
empirical  knowledge.  This  fact  is  well  brought 
out  in  the  following  passage  from  Kofler:  '^The 
teacher  must  imitate  the  wrong  muscle-action  and 
tone  of  his  pupil  as  an  illustration  of  the  negative 
side.''  {The  Art  of  Breathing,  N.  Y.,  1889.) 
Kofler  does  not  touch  on  the  question,  how  the 
teacher  is  able  to  locate  the  wrong  muscle-action 
of  the  pupil.  He  takes  this  ability  for  granted; 
it  is  so  purely  an  intuitive  process  that  he  does 
not  stop  to  inquire  into  the  source  of  this  informa- 
tion of  the  pupil's  vocal  action.  Through  his 
sense  of  hearing  he  sub- consciously  locates  the 
faults  in  the  pupil's  tone-production.  His  only 
conscious  application  of  this  knowledge  is  the 
attempt  to  explain  to  the  pupil  the  wrong  muscle- 
action.  This  he  naturally  tries  to  do  in  the  terms 
of  mechanical  action  and  muscular  operation. 
Thus  the  mechanical  doctrine  is  used  in  the 
attempt  to  explain  the  empirical  knowledge.  Yet 
the  teacher  is  conscious  only  of  citing  the  me- 
chanical rule,  and  believes  this  to  cover  the 
entire  instruction. 


,-v 


202      ]  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

In  the  preceding  chapter  it  was  seen  that  the 
perfectly  produced  vocal  tone  may  be  considered 
in  a  variety  of  aspects.  Each  one  of  these  aspects 
is  characterized  by  a  fairly  distinct  set  of  sym- 
pathetic sensations.  Of  faulty  modes  of  throat 
action,  as  revealed  by  sympathetic  ^  sensations, 
there  is  an  almost  infinite  variety,  f  Of  this  wide 
variety  of  forms  of  throat  tension  the^Tirost  promi- 
nent are  those  indicated  by  sets  of  sympathetic 
sensations,  the  direct  opposites  of  those  charac- 
terizing the  perfect  vocal  action.  Thus  the  open 
throat  is  indicated  by  one  set  of  sympathetic 
sensations,  the  lack  of  this  characteristic  of  tone 
by  an  opposite  set,  etc. 

(Whatever  distinct  fault  of  production  the 
pupiPs  tone  indicates,  the  master  immediately 
notes  the  character  of  the  faulty  throat  action. 
The  master  feels,  simply  and  directly,  what 
is  wrong  with  the  student's  tone-production. 
Whence  this  knowledge  comes  he  does  not  stop 
to  inquire.!  Suppose  the  pupil  to  sing  an  exer- 
cise, and  to  produce  tones  which  stick  in  the 
throat,  instead  of  coming  out  freely.  The  master 
simply  hears  that  the  pupil's  voice  is  caught 
in  the  throat;  he  does  not  observe  that  he  is 


EMPIEICAL   KNOWLEDGE  203 

informed  of  this  condition  by  muscular  as  well 
as  auditory  sensations. 

This  ignoring  of  the  psychological  nature  of 
the  impressions  of  tone  is  not  necessarily  detri- 
mental to  successful  instruction. S  On  the  con- 
trary, the  master's  empirical  insight  into  the 
vocal  operations  of  the  pupil  would  probably  not 
be  advanced  by  an  understanding  of  the  psycho- 
logical proce^CV-^It  is  sufficient  for  the  teacher's 
purpose  to  hear  that  the  pupil's  voice  is  caught 
in  the  throat.  /  What  robs  this  hearing,  or  feeling, 
of  all  value  is  this :  the  master  attempts  to  inter- 
pret the  sensation  as  an  indication,  of  the  need 
of  some  specific  muscular  action,  to  be  directly 
performed  by  the  pupil.  To  this  end  he  cites  the 
mechanical  rule,  assumed  to  be  indicated  by  the 
pupil's  faulty  vocal  actionTl  This  may  be,  for 
example,  the  opening  of  the  throat  to  give  room 
for  the  tone  to  expand.  It  seems  so  perfectly 
simple  to  the  teacher; — the  pupil  narrows  his 
throat,  and  so  holds  in  the  tone;  let  him  expand 
his  throat  and  the  tone  will  come  out  freely. 
This  conclusion  seems  so  clearly  indicated  by  the 
sound  of  the  tones  that  the  master  almost  inevi- 
tably gives  the  precise  instruction:    **Open  your 


204  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

throat  and  let  your  voice  come  out.''  This  sums 
up,  to  the  master's  satisfaction,  everything  the 
pupil  need  do  to  correct  this  particular  fault  of 
tone-production. 

Other  sets  of  sympathetic  sensations,  awakened 
by  badly  produced  tones,  are  interpreted  in  the 
same  manner.  A  tone  heard  to  be  held  in  the 
back  of  the  throat  is  believed  to  indicate  the  need 
of  bringing  the  voice  forward  in  the  mouth. 
Other  forms  of  throaty  production  are  taken  to 
show  a  lack  of  support,  a  wrong  management  of 
the  breath,  a  need  of  breath-control,  a  misuse  of 
nasal  resonance,  or  an  improper  action  of  the 
vocal  cords.  In  all  these  attempts  to  interpret 
sympathetic  sensations  by  means  of  mechanical 
doctrines  the  teacher  naturally  relies  on  those 
doctrines  in  which  he  believes  most  firmly.  Sym- 
pathetic sensations  are  indeed  sometimes  cited 
in  proof  of  certain  theories  of  breath-control,  and 
also  of  nasal  resonance.  Both  these  topics  are 
worthy  of  separate  attention. 

Sympathetic  Sensations  and  Nasal  Resonance 

One  of  the  most  widely  accepted  theories  of  the 
vocal  action  is  that  the  higher  notes  of  the  voice 


EMPIEICAL   KNOWLEDGE  2a5 

are  influenced  by  reinforcing  vibrations  located 
in  tbe  nose  and  forehead.  Whether  this  idea  was 
derived  more  from  direct  than  from  sympathetic 
sensations  need  not  be  determined  now.  It  is  at 
any  rate  certain  that  a  perfectly  snng  tone  gives 
to  the  hearer  the  impression  of  nasal  influence  of 
some  kind.  The  exact  nature  of  this  influence 
has  never  been  determined.  It  may  be  air 
resonance,  or  sounding-board  resonance,  or  both 
combined.  Satisfactory  proof  on  this  point  is 
lacking.  In  the  belief  of  the  practical  teacher, 
however,  this  impression  of  nasal  influence  is  the 
strongest  argument  in  favor  of  nasal  resonance. 
Turning  now  to  the  question  of  nasal  quality, 
strictly  speaking,  tones  of  this  objectionable  char- 
acter always  awaken  the  sympathetic  sensations 
of  contraction  somewhere  in  the  nose.  Why  such 
a  contraction  should  cause  this  unpleasant  sound 
of  the  voice  is  a  profound  mystery.  Perhaps 
wrong  tension  of  the  soft  palate  exerts  an 
influence  on  the  actions  of  the  vocal  cords;  or  it 
may  be  that  the  form  of  the  nasal  cavities  is 
altered  by  the  muscular  contraction.  This  aspect 
of  the  vocal  action  has  never  been  scientifically 
investigated.     The  sympathetic  sensation  of  nasal 


206  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

contraction  or  pincliing  is  at  any  rate  very  pro- 
nounced. Curiously,  tliis  sympathetic  sensation 
is  cited  as  an  argument  in  favor  of  their  respec- 
tive theories,  by  both  the  advocates  and  the 
opponents  of  nasal  resonance. 

Sympathetic  Sensations  and  Breath-Control 

Certain  forms  of  exaggerated  throat  stiffness 
are  frequently  held  to  indicate  the  need  of  breath- 
control.  The  faulty  vocal  action  in  question  is 
analyzed  by  the  breath-control  advocates  sub- 
stantially as  follows:  *' Owing  to  the  outflow  of 
the  breath  not  being  checked  at  the  proper  point, 
the  entire  vocal  mechanism  is  thrown  out  of 
adjustment.  The  singer  exerts  most  of  his  efforts 
in  the  endeavor  to  prevent  the  escape  of  the 
breath;  to  this  end  he  contracts  his  throat  and 
stiffens  his  tongue  and  jaw.  His  tones  are 
forced,  harsh,  and  breathy;  they  lack  musical 
quality.  His  voice  runs  away  with  him  and  he 
cannot  control  or  manage  it.  In  the  attempt  to 
obtain  some  hold  on  his  voice  he  *  reaches'  for  his 
tones  with  his  throat  muscles.  The  more  he  tries 
to  regain  control  of  the  runaway  breath  the  worse 
does  his  state  become." 


EMPIRICAL   KNOWLEDGE  207 

This  extreme  condition  of  throat  stiffness  is 
unfortunately  by  no  means  rare.  So  far  as  con- 
cerns the  sympathetic  sensations  awakened  by 
this  kind  of  singing  the  condition  is  graphically 
described  by  the  breath-control  advocates.  But 
the  conclusion  is  entirely  unjustified  that  this  con- 
dition indicates  the  lack  of  breath-control.  Only 
the  preconceived  notion  of  breath- control  leads 
to  this  inference.  The  sympathetic  sensations 
indicate  a  state  of  extreme  muscular  tension  of 
the  throat ;  this  is  about  the  only  possible  analysis 
of  the  condition. 

Empirical  impressions  of  vocal  tones  determine 
the  character  of  most  present-day  instruction  in 
singing.  This  means  no  more  than  to  say  that 
throughout  all  vocal  training  the  teacher  listens 
to  the  pupiPs  voice.  The  impressions  of  tone 
received  by  the  teacher's  ear  cannot  fail  to  inform 
the  teacher  of  the  condition  of  the  pupil's  throat 
in  producing  the  voice.  For  the  teacher  to  seek 
to  apply  this  information  in  imparting  the  correct 
vocal  action  to  the  pupil  is  inevitable. 

Almost  every  teacher  begins  a  course  of  in- 
struction by  having  the  pupil  run  through  the 


208  THE    PSYCHOLOGY   OF    SINGING 

prescribed  series  of  meclianical  exercises  and 
rules.  Breathing  is  always  taken  up  first. 
Breath-control,  laryngeal  action,  registers,  and 
resonance  follow  usually  in  this  order.  The  time 
devoted  to  this  course  of  training  may  vary  from 
a  few  weeks  to  several  months.  This  mechanical 
instruction  is  almost  always  interspersed  with 
songs  and  arias.  The  usual  procedure  is  to  devote 
about  half  of  each  lesson  to  mechanical  doctrines 
and  the  remainder  to  real  singing. 

Blind  faith  in  the  efficacy  of  this  mechanical 
training  is  the  teacher's  only  motive  in  giving  it. 
Very  little  attention  is  paid  to  the  sound  of  the 
pupil's  voice  during  the  study  of  mechanical  rules 
and  doctrines.  It  is  simply  taken  for  granted 
that  the  voice  must  be  put  through  this  course. 
Once  the  mechanical  course  has  been  covered,  the 
pupil's  voice  is  supposed,  in  a  vague  way,  to  be 
'* placed."  From  that  time  on,  whether  it  be 
at  the  end  of  two  months  of  study  or  of  two  years, 
the  instruction  is  based  solely  on  empirical  im- 
pressions of  tone. 

Little  remains  to  be  said  of  the  nature  of  this 
empirical  instruction.  It  always  retains  the  me- 
chanical aspect.    Whatever  fault  of  production  is 


EMPIRICAL   KNOWLEDGE  209 

noted,  the  teacher  seeks  to  correct  the  fault  by 
applying  some  mechanical  rule.    The  futility  of; 
this  form  of  instruction  has  already  been  pointed 
out. 

Only  two  ways  of  applying  empirical  knowledge 
of  the  voice  are  known  to  the  modern  vocal 
teacher.  These  are,  first,  to  tell  the  pupil  to 
**open  the  throat, '^  or  to  *' support  the  tone,"  or 
to  perform  whatever  other  mechanical  operation 
seems  to  be  indicated  as  necessary  by  the  sound 
of  the  tone;  second,  to  bid  the  student  to  ''feel 
that  the  tone  is  supported,"  to  ''feel  that  the 
throat  is  open,"  etc.  Under  these  circumstances 
the  little  advantage  derived  from  empirical  knowl- 
edge in  modern  Voice  Culture  is  readily  un- 
derstood. 


u 


CHAPTEK  VI 

SCIENTIFIC  KNOWLEDGE  OF  THE  VOICE 

So  far  as  any  definite  record  can  be  made,  tlie 
knowledge  of  the  voice  obtained  by  attentive 
listening  to  voices  has  now  been  set  down.  The 
next  step  in  the  scientific  study  of  tone-production 
is  the  consideration  of  all  knowledge  of  the  voice 
obtained  from  sources  other  than  empirical.  In 
other  words,  the  knowledge  of  the  voice  usually 
classed  as  scientific  is  now  to  be  examined. 

Three  sciences  are  generally  held  to  contribute 
all  that  can  possibly  be  known  about  the  vocal 
action.  These  are  anatomy,  acoustics,  and 
mechanics.  Of  these  anatomy  has  received  by 
far  the  most  attention  from  vocal  scientists.  The 
laws  of  acoustics,  bearing  on  the  voice,  have  also 
been  carefully  considered.  Beyond  the  theory  of 
breath-control,  little  attempt  has  been  made  to 
apply  the  principles  of  mechanics  in  Vocal 
Science.     Psychology,  the  science  most  intimately 

210 


SCIENTIFIC    KNOWLEDGE    OF    THE    VOICE         211 

concerned  with  the  management  of  the  voice,  has 
received  almost  no  attention  in  this  connection. 

A  complete  record  of  the  teachings  of  the  estab- 
lished sciences  with  regard  to  the  voice  demands 
the  separate  consideration  of  the  four  sciences 
mentioned.  Each  will  therefore  be  treated  in 
turn.  In  the  case  of  each  of  these  sciences  it  is 
seen  that  the  most  essential  facts  of  the  vocal 
action  have  been  definitely  established.  Many 
questions  still  remain  to  be  satisfactorily  an- 
swered which  are  of  great  interest  to  the  theo- 
retical student  of  the  voice.  Yet  in  spite  of  the 
lack  of  exact  knowledge  on  these  points,  enough 
is  now  known  to  furnish  the  basis  for  a  practical 
science  of  Voice  Culture. 

The  Anatomy  of  the  Vocal  Mechanism 

This  subject  has  been  so  exhaustively  studied 
that  nothing  new  can  well  be  discovered  regarding 
the  muscular  structure  of  the  vocal  organs.  In 
all  probability  the  reader  is  sufficiently  acquainted 
with  the  anatomy  of  the  larynx  and  its  connec- 
tions. Only  a  very  brief  outline  of  the  subject 
is  therefore  demanded.     The  muscles  concerned 


212  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

with  breathing  call  for  no  special  notice  in  this 
connection. 

The  special  organ  of  voice  is  the  larynx.  This 
consists  of  four  cartilages,  with  their  connecting 
ligaments, — the  thyroid,  the  cricoid,  and  the  two 
arytenoids,  and  of  nine  so-called  intrinsic  mns- 
cles, — two  crico-thyroid,  right  and  left,  two  thyro- 
arytenoid, two  posterior  crico-arytenoid,  two 
lateral  crico-arytenoid,  and  one  arytenoideus. 
The  inner  edges  of  the  thyro-arytenoid  mnscles 
form  the  vocal  cords.  The  hyoid  bone,  serving 
as  a  medium  of  attachment  for  the  tongue,  may 
also  be  considered  a  portion  of  the  larynx.  By 
means  of  the  extrinsic  muscles  the  larynx  is  con- 
nected with  the  bones  of  the  chest,  neck,  and  head. 

While  the  muscular  structure  of  the  vocal 
organs  is  thoroughly  known,  the  actions  of  the 
laryngeal  muscles  in  tone-production  have  never 
been  absolutely  determined.  This  much  is  defi- 
nitely established:  Vocal  tone  is  produced  when 
the  vocal  cords  are  brought  together  and  held  on 
tension,  and  the  air  in  the  lungs  is  expired  with 
sufficient  force  to  set  the  vocal  cords  in  motion. 
The  tension  of  the  vocal  cords  can  be  increased 
by  the  contraction  of  their  muscular  tissues,  the 


SCIENTIFIC   KNOWLEDGE    OF   THE   VOICE        213 

two  thyro-arytenoid  muscles;  further,  increased 
tension  of  the  cords  can  also  result  from  the 
tilting  of  the  thyroid  cartilage  on  the  cricoid,  by 
the  contraction  of  the  crico-thyroid  muscles. 

It  is  also  definitely  proved  that  the  pitch  of  the 
vocal  tone  varies  with  the  state  of  tension  of  the 
vocal  cords;  increasing  the  degree  of  tension 
raises  the  pitch,  decreasing  the  tension  lowers  it. 
As  to  the  relative  importance  of  the  different 
groups  of  muscles  in  varying  the  tension  of  the 
vocal  cords,  nothing  has  been  defintely  proved. 

In  addition  to  the  variations  in  pitch  resulting 
from  variations  in  the  tension  of  the  vocal  cords, 
there  is  also  much  ground  for  believing  that  the 
pitch  may  be  raised  by  shortening  the  effective 
length  of  the  vocal  cords.  This  is  apparently 
accomplished  by  the  rotation  of  the  arytenoid  car- 
tilages; but  the  specific  muscular  contractions 
concerned  in  the  rotation  of  the  arytenoids  have 
not  been  located 

It  is  generally  asserted  by  vocal  theorists  that 
the  quality  of  the  vocal  tone,  on  any  one  note, 
is  determined  mainly  by  the  influence  of  the 
resonance  cavities.  Dr.  Mills  says  on  this  point : 
''When  it  is  borne  in  mind  that  the  vocal  bands 


214  THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   SINGING 

have  little  or  nothing  to  do  with  the  quality  of  the 
tone,  the  importance  of  those  parts  of  the  vocal 
apparatus  which  determine  quality  .  .  .  becomes 
apparent."  (Voice  Production  in  Singing  and 
Speaking,  1906.)  This  theory  that  the  quality  of 
the  tone  is  determined  solely  by  the  resonance 
cavities  is  directly  contradicted  by  Prof.  Scrip- 
ture. He  proves  that  changes  in  tone  quality 
result  from  changes  in  vocal  cord  adjustment. 
This  subject  is  more  fully  treated  in  the  following 
section.  Even  before  this  matter  had  been 
definitely  settled  by  Prof.  Scripture,  there  was  a 
strong  presumption  in  favor  of  the  vocal  cord 
adjustment  theory.  Howard  advanced  this  idea 
in  1883.  Several  empirical  observations  support 
this  theory.  Most  important  of  these  is  the  fact 
that  a  single  tone,  swelled  from  piano  to  forte, 
goes  through  a  wide  variety  of  changes  in  quality. 
Stockhausen's  mention  of  this  fact  has  already 
been  noted. 

This  fact  tends  to  cast  some  doubt  on  the  value 
of  laryngoscopic  observation  as  a  means  of  de- 
termining the  laryngeal  action.  Under  the  con- 
ditions necessary  for  examination  with  the 
laryngoscope  it  is  impossible  for  the  singer  to 


SCIENTIFIC    KNOWLEDGE    OF    THE    VOICE         215 

produce  any  but  soft  tones  in  the  head  quality  of 
voice.  Most  of  these  tones,  if  swelled  to  forte, 
would  change  from  the  head  to  the  chest  quality. 
It  is  probable  that  this  change  in  quality  is 
effected  by  a  corresponding  change  in  the  vocal 
cord  adjustment,  as  the  conditions  of  the  reso- 
nance cavities  remain  the  same.  But  this  cannot 
be  determined  by  laryngoscopic  observation. 

So  far  as  the  actions  of  the  laryngeal  muscles 
are  concerned,  no  difference  can  be  defined  be- 
tween the  correct  vocal  action  and  any  improper 
mode  of  operation.^.  Sir  Morell  Mackenzie  exam- 
ined a  large  number  of  people  with  the  aid  of 
the  laryngoscope;  of  these,  some  were  trained 
singers,  others,  while  possessed  of  good  natural 
voices,  had  had  no  vocal  training  whatever. 
Many  variations  were  noted  in  the  notes  on  which 
changes  of  register  occurred.  But  it  could  not 
be  determined  by  this  mode  of  examination 
whether  the  subject  was  a  trained  singer  or  not. 

If  there  is  one  specifically  correct  mode  of 
operation  for  the  vocal  cords,  this  correct  action 
has  never  been  determined  from  the  anatomy  of 
the  organs.  No  doubt  there  is  some  difference 
between  the  muscular  actions  of  correct  tone- 


216  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

production  and  those  of  any  incorrect  operation 
of  the  voice.  But  the  nature  of  this  difference 
in  muscular  action  has  never  been  discovered  by 
means  of  dissections  of  the  larynx,  nor  by  la- 
ryngoscopic  observation. 

The  Acoustic  Principles  of  Tone-Production 

An  outline  of  the  existing  state  of  knowledge 
regarding  the  acoustic  principles  of  tone-pro- 
duction must  be  drawn  mainly  from  one  source. 
This  is  the  latest  authoritative  work  on  the  sub- 
ject, The  Study  of  Speech  Curves,  by  E.  W. 
Scripture  (Washington,  1906).  In  this  work 
Prof.  Scripture  overthrows  several  of  the  con- 
clusions of  Helmholtz  which  had  hitherto  fur- 
nished the  basis  of  all  the  accepted  theories  of 
vocal  acoustics.  Considering  the  eminently  sci- 
entific character  of  all  Prof.  Scripture's  research 
work,  his  thorough  acquaintance  with  every  detail 
of  the  subject,  and  the  exhaustive  attention  de- 
voted to  this  series  of  experiments,  we  are  fully 
justified  in  accepting  his  present  statements  as 
conclusively  proved. 

A  first  impression  received  from  a  careful  read- 
ing of  The  Study  of  Speech  Curves  is  that  the 


SCIENTIFIC    KNOWLEDGE    OF    THE    VOICE         217 

subject  is  vastly  more  intricate  than  had  formerly 
been  believed.  Helmholtz's  theory  of  vocal 
acoustics  was  fairly  simple:  The  vocal  cords 
vibrate  after  the  manner  of  membranous  reeds; 
a  tone  thus  produced  consists  of  a  fundamental 
and  a  series  of  overtones ;  vowel  and  tone  quality 
are  determined  by  the  influence  of  the  resonance 
cavities,  which  reinforce  certain  of  the  overtones 
with  special  prominence.  This  theory  is  dis- 
carded by  Prof.  Scripture.  *  *  The  overtone  theory 
of  the  vowels  cannot  be  correct. ' '  In  place  of  this 
simple  theory^  Prof.  Scripture  reaches  conclusions 
too  complicated  to  be  given  in  detail  here.  A 
brief  outline  of  the  subject  must  suffice  for  the 
needs  of  the  present  work. 

Prof.  Scripture  found  that  the  nature  of  the 
walls  of  a  resonating  cavity  is  of  more  importance 
than  either  its  size,  shape,  or  opening.  A  flesh- 
lined  cavity  is  capable  of  reinforcing  tones  cover- 
ing a  range  of  several  notes.  Further,  the  vowel 
sound,  and  presumably  also  the  tone  quality,  are 
determined  more  by  the  action  of  the  vocal  cords 
than  by  the  adjustment  of  the  resonance  cavities. 
**The  glottal  lips  vibrate  differently  for  the  dif- 
ferent vowels."    This  adjustment  of  the  glottal 


218  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

lips  **  presumably  occurs  by  nervously  aroused 
contractions  of  tbe  fibers  of  the  muscles  in  the 
glottal  lips."     Continuing,  Prof.  Scripture  says: 

''Physiologically  stated,  the  action  for  a  vowel 
is  as  follows:  Each  glottal  lip  consists  mainly 
of  a  mass  of  muscles  supported  at  the  ends  and 
along  the  lateral  side.  It  bears  no  resemblance 
to  a  membrane  or  a  string.  The  two  lips  come 
together  at  their  front  ends,  but  diverge  to  the 
rear.  The  rear  ends  are  attached  to  the  arytenoid 
cartilages.  When  the  ends  are  brought  together 
by  rotation  of  these  arytenoid  cartilages,  the 
medial  surfaces  touch.  At  the  same  time  they 
are  stretched  by  the  action  of  the  crico-thyroid 
muscles,  which  pull  apart  the  points  of  support 
at  the  ends. 

'*In  this  way  the  two  masses  of  muscle  close 
the  air  passage.  To  produce  a  vowel  such  a  rela- 
tion of  air  pressure  and  glottal  tension  is  ar- 
ranged that  the  air  from  the  trachea  bursts  the 
muscles  apart  for  a  moment,  after  which  they 
close  again ;  the  release  of  the  puff  of  air  reduces 
the  pressure  in  the  trachea  and  they  remain  closed 
until  the  pressure  is  again  sufficient  to  burst  them 
apart.     With    appropriate    adjustments    of    the 


SCIENTIFIC    KNOWLEDGE    OF    THE    VOICE         219 

laryngeal  muscles  and  air  pressure  this  is  kept 
up  indefinitely,  and  a  series  of  puffs  from  the 
larynx  is  produced.  The  glottal  lips  open  partly 
by  yielding  sidewise, — that  is,  they  are  com- 
pressed,— and  partly  by  being  shoved  upward  and 
outward  The  form  of  the  puff,  sharp  or  smooth, 
is  determined  by  the  way  in  which  the  glottal  lips 
yield;  the  mode  of  yielding  depends  on  the  way 
in  which  the  separate  fibers  of  the  muscles  are 
contracted. 

''These  puffs  act  on  the  vocal  cavity,  that  is, 
on  a  complicated  system  of  cavities  (trachea, 
larynx,  pharynx,  mouth,  nose)  with  variable 
shapes,  sizes,  and  openings.  The  effect  of  the 
puffs  on  each  element  of  the  vocal  cavity  is 
double :  first,  to  arouse  in  it  a  vibration  with  a 
period  depending  on  the  cavity;  second,  to  force 
on  it  a  vibration  of  the  same  period  as  that  of  the 
set  of  puffs.  The  prevalence  of  one  of  the  factors 
over  the  other  depends  on  the  form  of  the  puff, 
the  walls  of  the  cavities,  etc.'' 

Prof.  Scripture  does  not  undertake  to  point  out 
a  difference  between  the  correct  vocal  action  in 
tone-production,  and  any  incorrect  action.  This 
difference  in  action  does  not   seem  capable   of 


220  THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF    SINGING 

definition  by  any  analysis  of  the  acoustic  prin- 
ciples involved. 

Mechanical  Principles  of  the  Vocal  Action 

In  Part  II,  Chapter  II,  it  was  seen  that  the 
ontflow  of  the  breath  in  tone-production  is  checked 
by  the  vocal  cords,  in  accordance  with  Pascal's 
law  of  fluid  pressures.  Another  law  of  mechanics 
bearing  on  this  operation  is  now  to  be  considered, 
viz.,  the  law  of  the  transformation  and  conserva- 
tion of  energy. 

The  application  of  the  law  of  the  transforma- 
tion and  conservation  of  energy  to  the  operations 
of  the  voice  is  nicely  illustrated  by  the  well- 
known  candle-flame  test  of  (supposedly)  breath- 
control.  To  perform  this  test  the  singer  is 
instructed  to  practise  the  exercises  for  breath- 
control  while  holding  a  lighted  candle  with  the 
flame  an  inch  or  two  in  front  of  the  lips.  Accord- 
ing to  the  idea  of  the  breath-control  advocates, 
the  expired  breath  should  escape  so  slowly,  and 
with  so  little  force,  that  no  current  of  air  can  be 
detected  at  the  lips ,  the  expiration  therefore  does 
not  cause  the  candle  flame  to  flicker. 

Describing  the  toneless  breathing  exercises  to 


SCIENTIFIC   KNOWLEDGE    OF   THE   VOICE        221 

be  practised  with  the  candle  flame,  Browne  and 
Behnke  say,  **Let  it  be  observed  that  the  above 
exercise  is  quite  distinct  from  the  well-known 
practice  of  singing  before  a  lighted  candle,  which 
is,  comparatively  speaking,  an  easy  matter.** 
(Voice,  Song,  and  Speech.)  A  very  striking  fact 
is  stated  correctly  by  Browne  and  Behnke, — there 
is  no  current  of  air  created  at  the  lips  during 
tone-production.  Of  the  truth  of  this  statement 
the  reader  may  readily  convince  himself  by  trying 
this  same  experiment  with  a  candle  flame,  or  even 
with  a  lighted  match.  Hold  a  lighted  match 
just  in  front  of  the  lips  and  sing  a  powerful  tone. 
The  quality  of  the  tone  is  of  no  consequence  so 
long  as  it  be  powerful.  Just  sing,  shout,  yell, 
the  louder  the  better.  You  will  find  that  the 
flame  is  less  affected  under  these  circumstances 
than  by  the  quiet  expiration  of  ordinary  breathing. 

Considerable  practice  and  close  attention  are 
required  in  order  to  hold  back  the  breath  in  tone- 
less breathing  exercises.  Whereas  in  producing 
any  kind  of  powerful  tone  the  breath  normally 
creates  no  current  of  air  at  the  lips. 

There  is  no  reason  for  considering  this  experi- 
ment a  test  of  correct  tone-production.  It  is 
impossible  to  produce  a  powerful  tone  of  any 


222  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

kind,  good,  bad,  or  indifferent,  and  at  the  same 
time  to  create  an  appreciable  current  of  air  at  the 
lips. 

Needless  to  say,  the  breath-control  theorists 
have  entirely  failed  to  grasp  the  significance  of 
the  candle-flame  experiment.  Yet  we  have  here  a 
demonstration  of  the  mechanical  law  of  tone- 
production. 

Considered  as  a  mechanical  process,  tone-pro- 
duction occurs  when  the  energy  exerted  by  the 
expiratory  muscles,  in  their  contraction,  is  con- 
verted into  energy  of  motion  of  the  vocal  cords.^ 
In  other  words,  tone-production  is  an  example  of 
the  transformation  of  energy.  The  law  of  the 
transformation  and  conservation  of  energy  must 
therefore  apply  to  this  operation.  This  law  is 
stated  as  follows :  *  ^  Energy  may  be  transformed 
from  any  of  its  forms  to  any  other  form.  When 
energy  is  thus  transformed  the  quantity  of  energy 
in  the  resulting  form  or  forms  is  equal  to  the 
quantity  of  energy  in  the  original  form." 

*  This  exposition  of  the  mechanical  principle  of  tone-produc- 
tion is  intended  to  be  graphic,  rather  than  strictly  technical.  For 
the  sake  of  simplicity,  that  portion  of  the  expiratory  energy  ex- 
pended in  friction  against  the  throat  walls,  tongue,  cheeks,  etc., 
is  disregarded,  as  well  as  that  expended  in  propelling  the  air  out 
of  the  mouth,  in  displacing  the  same  quantity  of  external  air,  etc. 


SCIENTIFIC    KNOWLEDGE    OF    THE    VOICE         223 

The  mechanical  operation  of  tone-production 
comprises  the  following  transformations  of 
energy:  First,  the  energy  exerted  in  the  con- 
traction of  the  expiratory  muscles  is  converted 
into  energy  of  condensation  or  elasticity  of  the 
air  in  the  lungs  and  trachea.  Second,  this  energy 
of  condensation  of  the  air  is  converted  into  energy 
of  motion  of  the  vocal  cords.  In  other  words, 
the  expiratory  energy  is  transformed  into  energy 
of  motion. 

One  objection,  at  first  sight  very  serious,  may 
be  offered  against  this  statement:  the  amount  of 
strength  exerted  in  the  contractions  of  the  breath 
muscles  seems  many  times  greater  than  is  ac- 
counted for  in  the  motion  of  the  vocal  cords. 
The  movements  of  the  vocal  cords  are  so  slight 
as  to  be  observable  only  with  the  aid  of  a  specially 
devised  apparatus,  the  stroboscope.  Can  all  the 
expiratory  force  expended  in  tone-production 
show  such  a  small  result?  This  apparent  objec- 
tion is  found  to  be  groundless  in  view  of  the 
application  in  this  operation  of  Pascal's  law. 
As  this  topic  was  fully  treated  in  Chapter  11 
of  Part  II,  no  further  explanation  is  required 
here. 


224  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

The  erroneous  idea  of  vocal  mechanics  involved 
in  the  doctrine  of  breath-control  is  now  fully 
exposed.  Tone  can  be  produced  only  when  the 
expired  air  exerts  a  pressure  on  the  vocal  cords. 
There  is  no  necessity  for  any  conscious  or  volun- 
tary check  on  the  expiration.  The  energy  of  the 
expiration  is  expended  in  setting  the  vocal  cords 
in  motion.  No  energy  of  condensation  is  left  in 
the  expired  air  the  instant  it  has  passed  the  vocal 
cords.  Beyond  that  point  there  is  no  expiratory 
pressure. 

In  one  sense  it  is  true  that  the  expiration  is 
** controlled''  in  tone-production.  But  this  con- 
trol is  strictly  an  automatic  action.  The  vocal 
cords  are  adjusted,  by  the  appropriate  muscular 
contractions,  to  move  in  response  to  the  air  pres- 
sure exerted  against  them.  This  action  involves, 
as  a  necessary  consequence,  the  holding  back  by 
the  vocal  cords  of  the  out-rushing  air.  So  long 
as  the  vocal  cords  remain  in  the  position  for  pro- 
ducing tone,  they  also  control  the  expiration.  In 
this  sense  breath-control  is  an  inseparable  feature 
of  tone-production. 

All  that  need  be  known  of  the  mechanics  of  the 
voice   is   therefore   perfectly   plain.    The   vocal 


SCIENTIFIC    KNOWLEDGE    OF    THE    VOICE         225 

cords  are  set  in  motion  by  the  pressure  against 
them  of  the  expired  breath.  This  operation  is  in 
accordance  with  Pascal's  law  and  the  law  of  the 
conservation  of  energy. 

But  this  analysis  throws  no  light  on  the  nature 
of  the  correct  vocal  action.  It  is  impossible  for 
the  voice  to  produce  a  sound  in  any  way  other 
than  that  just  described.  In  speaking  or  in  sing- 
ing, in  laughing  or  in  crying,  in  every  sound 
produced  by  the  action  of  the  vocal  cords,  the 
mechanical  principle  is  always  the  same.  Nor  is 
the  bearing  of  this  law  limited  to  the  human  voice. 
Every  singing  bird,  every  animal  whose  vocal 
mechanism  consists  of  lungs  and  larynx,  illus- 
trates the  same  mechanical  principle  of  vocal 
action. 

Only  passing  mention  is  required  of  the  fallacy 
of  the  breath-band  theory.  The  idea  of  any 
necessity  of  relieving  the  vocal  cords  of  the  ex- 
piratory pressure  is  purely  fanciful.  How  any 
one  with  even  a  slight  understanding  of  mechanics 
could  imagine  the  checking  of  the  breath  by  the 
inflation  of  the  ventricles  of  Morgagni,  is  hard  to 
conceive. 

15 


226  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

The  Psychology  of  Tone-Production 

This  subject  was  treated,  in  some  detail,  in 
Chapter  V  of  Part  II.  In  that  chapter  however 
we  were  concerned  more  with  a  destructive 
criticism  of  the  idea  of  mechanical  tone-produc- 
tion than  with  the  positive  features  of  vocal 
psychology.  At  the  risk  of  some  repetition  it 
is  therefore  advisable  here  to  sum  up  the  laws  of 
psychology  bearing  on  the  vocal  action. 

Considered  as  a  psychological  process,  tone- 
production  in  singing  involves  three  distinct 
operations.  First,  the  mental  ear  conceives  a 
tone  of  definite  pitch,  quality,  vowel  sound,  and 
power.  Second,  the  vocal  organs  prepare  to 
adjust  themselves,  by  the  appropriate  muscular 
contractions,  for  the  production  of  the  tone 
mentally  conceived.  Third,  the  fiat  of  will  is 
issued,  causing  the  muscular  contractions  to  be 
performed.  These  three  operations  are  executed 
as  one  conscious,  voluntary  act.  Let  us  inquire 
to  what  extent  consciousness  is  concerned  with 
each  operation. 

As  conscious  volitional  impulses,  the  mental 
conception  of  the  tone,  and  the  fiat  of  will  to 


SCIENTIFIC    KNOWLEDGE    OF    THE    VOICE        227 

produce  the  tone,  are  well  enough  understood. 
These  two  operations  call  for  no  extended  con- 
sideration. We  are  at  present  concerned  only 
with  the  psychological  laws  bearing  on  the  mus- 
cular adjustments  of  the  vocal  organs. 

Muscular  contractions  result  from  the  trans- 
mission to  the  muscular  fibers  of  motor  nerve 
impulses.  These  nerve  impulses  originate  in  the 
motor  nerve  centers.  They  can  never,  under  any 
circumstances,  rise  into  consciousness.  Con- 
tractions of  the  voluntary  muscles  occur  either 
as  reflex  or  as  voluntary  actions.  In  both  cases 
the  motor  nerve  impulses  originate  in  the  «ame 
nerve  centers.  In  the  case  of  reflex  actions  these 
lower  muscular  centers  alone  are  involved;  in 
voluntary  actions  the  originating  of  the  motor 
impulses  is  ** controlled''  by  consciousness.  In 
deciding  that  an  action  shall  be  performed,  and 
in  what  way  it  is  to  be  performed,  consciousness 
directs  that  each  motor  center  involved  shall  send 
out  the  appropriate  discharges  of  nerve  impulse. 

Complex  muscular  activities  require  the  send- 
ing out  of  nerve  impulses  from  various  motor 
centers.  Such  activities  are  usually  not  per- 
formed instantaneously,  but  require  a  longer  or 


228  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

shorter  time.  Thus  we  may  consider  it  as  one 
action  for  the  writer  to  rise  from  his  chair,  to 
lower  the  window  and  adjust  the  shade,  and  then 
to  return  to  his  seat.  In  this  case  a  large  number 
of  motor  centers  are  successively  involved ;  at  the 
proper  instant  each  center  discharges  its  impulse. 
To  this  end  the  motor  centers  must  be  instructed 
when  to  come  into  activity. 

This  distribution  of  nerve  impulse  is  effected 
by  the  power  of  coordination.  In  voluntary 
actions  coordination  is  accompanied  by  conscious 
control.^  But  coordination  is  not  a  function  of 
the  higher  cerebral  centers,  that  is,  of  conscious- 
ness. How  the  connection  is  made  between  the 
higher  cerebral  centers  and  the  lower  motor  cen- 
ters is  a  complete  mystery.     All  that  can  be  said 

*In  this  connection  it  is  advisable  to  point  out  a  difference 
between  the  meanings  attached  to  the  word  ''control"  in  psy- 
chology and  in  Vocal  Science.  The  psychologist  classes  habitual 
movements  as  either  automatic  or  controlled.  Automatic  move- 
ments are  purely  reflex;  the  individual  does  not  consciously  decide 
whether  they  shall  be  performed  or  not.  Psychologically  con- 
sidered, the  control  of  a  movement  is  simply  the  conscious  voli- 
tipnal  decision  whether  the  movement  shall  be  performed.  To 
adopt  the  language  of  Psychology,  we  should  speak  of  voice 
management,  and  of  hreath  regulation,  instead  of  vocal  control, 
breath  control,  etc.  In  the  following  chapters  the  accepted  psy- 
chological usage  of  the  word  ''control"  will  so  far  as  possible  be 
adopted. 


SCIENTIFIC    KNOWLEDGE    OF    THE    VOICE         229 

is  that  the  ideas  of  movements  are  transmitted  to 
the  motor  centers,  and  that  these  send  out  the 
appropriate  motor  impulses. 

Turning  now  to  the  muscular  adjustments  of 
the  vocal  organs,  these  adjustments  are  seen  to 
be  independent  of  conscious  guidance.  "When  a 
tone  is  mentally  conceived  the  vocal  organs  adjust 
themselves,  in  response  to  some  mysterious  guid- 
ance, for  the  production  of  the  tone.  The  vocal 
cords  assume  the  appropriate  degree  of  tension 
according  to  the  pitch  of  the  tone  to  be  sung. 
Both  the  quality  of  the  tone  and  the  vowel  are 
determined  by  the  combined  adjustments  of  the 
laryngeal  muscles  and  of  the  muscles  which  fix 
the  shape  and  size  of  the  resonance  cavities.  The 
power  of  the  tone  is  regulated  by  the  force  of 
the  breath  blast;  for  each  degree  of  power 
some  special  adjustment  of  the  vocal  cords  is 
required. 

All  these  adjustments  are  executed  as  one  con- 
crete and  individual  act  in  response  to  the  voli- 
tional impulse  contained  in  the  mental  conception 
of  the  tone.  The  tone  is  conceived  as  a  concrete 
whole.  It  is  not  normally  broken  up  mentally 
into  its  four  aspects  of  pitch,  quality,  vowel,  and 


230  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

power.  True,  each  one  of  these  four  character- 
istics of  the  tone  may  be  separately  considered  by 
the  singer.  So  also,  to  a  certain  extent,  may  the 
adjustments  of  the  vocal  organs  be  performed 
with  special  reference  to  one  or  the  other  char- 
acteristic of  the  tone.  But  in  every  case  the 
muscular  contractions  are  performed  withbut 
direct  conscious  guidance.  Whatever  be  the  char- 
acter of  the  tone  mentally  demanded,  the  vocal 
organs  instantly  adjust  themselves  to  produce  the 
tone. 

What  is  meant  by  saying  that  the  muscular 
contractions  are  performed  without  conscious 
guidance?  Does  this  mean  that  the  singer  is 
unconscious  of  the  muscular  contractions?  Not 
at  all.  Muscular  sense  informs  the  singer,  more 
or  less  distinctly,  of  the  state  of  contraction  or 
relaxation  of  the  various  muscles  of  the  vocal 
organs.  The  singer  always  knows  fairly  well  the 
condition  of  the  various  parts  of  the  vocal  mech- 
anism. What  is  meant  is  this :  The  singer  does 
not  consciously  direct  the  vocal  organs  to  assume 
certain  positions  and  conditions,  and  does  not 
instruct  the  various  muscles  to  contract  in  certain 
ways.     The  singer  does  not  need  to  know,  and  in 


SCIENTIFIC    KNOWLEDGE    OF    THE    VOICE        231 

fact  cannot  know,  what  mnscnlar  contractions  are 
required  to  produce  any  desired  tone. 

Some  connection  exists  between  the  organs  of 
hearing  and  the  vocal  mechanism.  That  this  con- 
nection has  a  physical  basis  in  the  nervous  struc- 
ture is  fairly  well  established.  ''The  centers  for 
sight  and  for  arm  movements,  for  instance,  or 
those  of  hearing  and  of  vocal  movements,  have 
connecting  pathways  between  them."  (Feeling 
and  Will,  Jas.  M.  Baldwin,  1894.)  The  psycho- 
logical law  of  tone-production  is  that  the  vocal 
organs  adjust  themselves,  without  conscious 
guidance,  to  produce  the  tones  mentally  con- 
ceived. In  actual  singing  the  practical  applica- 
tion of  this  law  is  that  the  voice  is  guided  by 
the  ear. 

This  guidance  of  the  voice  by  the  ear  is  inces- 
sant. It  must  not  be  understood  that  the  mental 
ear  simply  conceives  a  single  tone,  and  that  the 
vocal  machinery  then  operates  without  further 
guidance.  All  the  characteristics  of  the  vocal 
tones, — pitch,  quality,  and  power, — are  constantly 
changing.  These  changes  require  corresponding 
changes  in  the  muscular  adjustments.  The  mus- 
cular contractions  in   turn   are   guided  by  the 


232  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

demands  of  the  mental  ear.  |  As  a  psychological 
process,  singing  may  therefore  be  analyzed  as 
follows:  The  singer  mentally  sings  the  com- 
position. In  response  to  the  ever  varying 
demands  of  the  ear  the  vocal  organs  adjust  them- 
selves to  produce  actually  the  sounds  thus 
mentally  conceived.  The  singer  listens  to  these 
sounds  and  at  every  instant  compares  them  to  the 
mental  conception.  If  the  tones  actually  pro- 
duced fail  to  correspond  exactly  to  those  mentally 
conceived,  the  singer  instantly  notes  this  varia- 
tion and  bids  the  vocal  organs  to  correct  it.  The 
ear  has  therefore  a  dual  function  in  singing. 
First,  the  mental  ear  directs  the  voice  in  its  opera- 
tions. Second,  the  physical  ear  acts  as  a  check 
or  corrective  on  the  voice. 

To  sum  up  the  psychology  of  tone-production, 
the  singer  guides  or  manages  the  voice  by  atten- 
tively listening  to  the  tones  of  the  voice.  This 
is  the  only  possible  means  of  vocal  guidance^ 
The  voice  and  the  ear  together  form  one  com- 
plete organ. 

But  we  are  still  apparently  as  far  as  ever  from 
the  specific  meaning  of  the  correct  vocal  action. 
That  the  voice  instinctively  obeys  the  commands 


SCIENTIFIC    KNOWLEDGE    OF    THE    VOICE        233 

of  the  ear  may  be  true  theoretically.  In  actual 
practice  we  know  that  this  does  not  by  any  means 
always  occur.  Singers  are  often  unable  to  get 
the  desired  results  from  their  voices,  even  when 
they  believe  themselves  to  rely  on  the  sense  of 
hearing.  There  must  therefore  be  some  influence 
which  under  certain  conditions  interferes  with 
the  operations  of  the  vocal  organs.  The  problem 
of  tone-production  is  thus  seen  to  be  one  of 
psychology.  It  narrows  down  to  this:  What 
can  interfere  with  the  normal  action  of  the  voice 
and  prevent  the  vocal  organs  from  instinctively 
responding  to  the  demands  of  the  ear?  A  satis- 
factory answer  to  this  problem  will  be  found  only 
by  a  consideration  of  all  available  knowledge  of 
the  voice,  both  empirical  and  scientific.  This 
forms  the  material  of  the  final  division  of  the 
present  work. 


Part  IV 

VOCAL  SCIENCE  AND  PRACTI 
CAL  VOICE  CULTURE 


CHAPTER   I 

THE  COEKECT  VOCAL  ACTION 

Two  distinct  lines  of  approach  were  laid  down 
for  studying  the  operations  of  the  voice.  First, 
the  manner  of  investigation  usually  accepted  as 
scientific.  This  is,  to  study  the  vocal  mechanism ; 
to  determine,  as  far  as  possible,  the  laws  of  its 
operation,  in  accordance  with  the  principles  of 
anatomy,  acoustics,  mechanics,  and  psychology. 
Second,  fhe  manner  of  investigation  generally 
called  empirical.  This  begins  with  the  observing 
of  the  tones  of  the  voice,  considered  simply  as 
sounds,  ffi^rom  the  tones  we  work  back  to  the 
vocal  organs  and  apply  to  theni  the  information 
obtained  by  attentive  listening.\  Both  of  these 
means  of  investigation  have  been 'utilized;  we  are 
now  in  possession  of  the  most  salient  facts 
obtainable  regarding  the  vocal  action. 

Separately  considered,  neither  the  scientific 
nor  the  empirical  study  of  the  voice  is  alone 
sufficient  to  inform  us  of  the  exact  nature  of  the 

237 


238  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

correct  vocal  action.  The  next  step  is  therefore 
to  combine  the  information  obtained  from  the  two 
sources,  scientific  analysis  and  empirical  observa- 
tion. Let  us  begin  by  summing  up  all  the  facts 
so  far  ascertained. 

Tone-production  in  singing  is  a  conscious  and 
voluntary  muscular  operation.  The  vocal  organs 
consist  of  a  number  of  sets  of  voluntary  muscles, 
of  the  bones  and  cartilages  to  which  these  muscles 
are  attached,  and  of  the  nerves  and  nerve  centers 
governing  their  actions.  The  precise  nature  of 
the  muscular  contractions  of  tone-production, 
whether  correct  or  incorrect,  is  not  known.  These 
contractions  occur  in  accordance  with  established 
laws  of  acoustics  and  mechanics.  Under  normal 
conditions  the  vocal  organs  instinctively  respond 
to  the  demands  of  the  singer,  through  the  guid- 
ance of  the  sense  of  hearing.  The  ability  of  the 
vocal  organs  to  adjust  themselves  properly  may 
be  upset  by  some  influence  apparently  outside  the 
singer's  voluntary  control.  Study  of  the  vocal 
mechanism  does  not  inform  us  of  the  meaning  of 
the  correct  vocal  action,  nor  of  the  difference 
between  this  action  and  any  other  mode  of  opera- 
tion of  the  voice. 


THE    CORRECT   VOCAL   ACTION  289 

Empirically  considered,  there  is  a  striking  dif- 
ference between  the  correct  vocal  action  and  any- 
other  manner  of  tone-prodnction.  A  perfect 
vocal  tone  awakens  in  the  hearer  a  distinct  set  of 
auditory  and  muscular  sensations.  Attentively 
observed,  the  muscular  sensations  of  the  hearer 
indicate  that  the  perfect  vocal  tone  is  produced 
by  the  balanced  and  harmonious  action  of  all  the 
muscles  of  the  singer's  vocal  mechanism.  In 
listening  to  perfect  singing  the  hearer  feels  that 
every  muscle  of  the  singer's  vocal  organs  is  con- 
tracted with  exactly  the  appropriate  degree  of 
strength.  Any  vocal  tone  of  unsatisfactory  sound 
awakens  in  the  hearer  a  set  of  muscular  sensa- 
tions, the  direct  opposite  of  those  indicating  the 
correct  vocal  action.  An  incorrectly  produced 
tone  imparts  to  the  hearer  a  sensation  of  stiffness 
and  undue  muscular  tension,  located  more  or  less 
definitely  in  the  throat.  This  sensation  indicates 
that  the  singer's  throat  is  stiffened  by  excessive 
muscular  contraction.  Further,  this  feeling  of 
throat  stiffness  indicates  to  the  hearer  that  the 
singer's  vocal  action  would  become  correct  if  the 
undue  muscular  tension  were  relaxed. 

Combining  now  the  results  of  empirical  and 


240  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

scientific  investigation  of  the  voice,  throat  stiff- 
ness is  seen  to  be  the  interfering  influence  which 
disturbs  the  instinctive  connection  between  voice 
and  ear.  Let  us  now  consider  the  meaning  of 
throat  stiffness  as  a  feature  of  incorrect  tone- 
production.    First,  what  is  muscular  stiffness! 

All  the  voluntary  muscles  of  the  body  are 
arranged  in  opposed  pairs,  sets,  or  groups.  A 
typical  pair  of  opposed  muscles  are  the  biceps 
and  triceps  of  the  upper  arm.  Contraction  of 
the  biceps  flexes  the  forearm  at  the  elbow;  the 
contrary  movement,  extending  the  forearm,  re- 
sults from  the  contraction  of  the  triceps.  This 
principle  of  opposition  applies  to  the  entire  mus- 
cular system.  One  set  of  muscles  raises  the  ribs 
in  inspiration,  another  set  lowers  them  in  expira- 
tion ;  one  group  flexes  the  fingers  and  clenches  the 
fist,  an  opposed  set  extends  the  fingers  and  opens 
the  hand.  Muscular  opposition  does  not  imply 
that  the  entire  structure  is  made  up  of  parallel 
pairs  of  muscles,  like  the  biceps  and  triceps, 
located  on  opposite  sides  of  the  same  bone.  It 
means  only  that  the  opposed  sets  pull  in  contrary 
directions. 

Each  opposed  set  consists  of  muscles  of  about 


THE    COREECT   VOCAL   ACTION  241 

equal  strength.  Under  normal  conditions  of  re- 
laxation the  entire  muscular  system  exerts  a 
slight  degree  of  contraction.  To  this  normal 
state  of  oppositional  contraction  the  name  '* mus- 
cular tonicity"  is  given.  The  present  purpose 
does  not  call  for  a  discussion  of  the  subject  of 
muscular  tonicity.  This  form  of  contraction  has 
no  direct  bearing  on  the  performance  of  volun- 
tary movements. 

What  effect  has  the  voluntary  contraction  of  all 
the  muscles  of  any  member,  each  opposed  set 
exerting  the  same  degree  of  strength?  No  motion 
of  the  member  results,  but  the  member  is  brought 
on  tension  and  stiffened.  This  is  well  illustrated 
in  the  case  of  the  arm.  Extend  the  arm  and 
clench  the  fist;  then  contract  all  the  muscles  of 
the  arm,  about  as  the  athlete  does  to  display  his 
muscular  development.  You  will  notice  that  the 
arm  becomes  stiff  and  tense. 

This  state  of  tension  is  commonly  called  * 'mus- 
cular stiffness,"  but  the  term  is  open  to  objec- 
tion. It  is  really  the  joints  which  are  stiffened, 
not  the  muscles.  We  are,  however,  so  accus- 
tomed to  speak  of  muscular  stiffness,  and  parti- 
cularly of  throat  stiffness,  that  little  is  to  be 

16 


242  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

gained  by  substituting  a  more  accurate  expression. 

A  condition  of  muscular  stiffness  results  from 
the  contraction  of  all  tbe  muscles  of  a  member, 
whether  this  contraction  be  voluntary  or  invol- 
untary. This  condition  does  not  prevent  the 
normal  movements  of  the  member ;  it  only  renders 
the  movements  more  difficult  and  fatiguing  and 
less  effective.  It  is  readily  seen  why  this  is  the 
case.  More  than  the  necessary  strength  is  exerted 
by  the  muscles.  Suppose  the  biceps  and  triceps, 
for  example,  each  to  be  contracted  with  five  units 
of  strength ;  then  let  some  work  be  performed  by 
the  flexing  of  the  forearm,  requiring  the  exertion 
of  two  units  of  strength.  In  this  case  the  biceps 
must  exert  two  units  of  strength  more  than  the 
triceps,  that  is,  seven  units.  In  all,  the  two  mus- 
cles together  exert  twelve  units  of  strength  to 
accomplish  the  effective  result  of  two  units.  Six 
times  the  needed  strength  is  exerted.  Activity  of 
this  kind  is  naturally  fatiguing. 

Muscular  stiffness  increases  the  difficulty  of 
complex  movements.  Not  only  is  unnecessary 
strength  exerted;  the  stiffness  of  the  joints  also 
interferes  with  the  freedom  and  facility  of  mo- 
tion.   But  this  unfavorable   condition  does  not 


THE    CORRECT    VOCAL    ACTION  243 

upset  the  power  of  coordination.  The  instinctive 
connection  between  the  nerve  centers  of  con- 
sciousness and  the  motor  centers  is  not  broken. 
Although  hampered  in  their  efforts,  the  mus- 
cles are  still  able  to  execute  the  demands  of 
consciousness. 

As  an  illustration  of  this  analysis  of  muscular 
stiffness  let  us  consider  the  actions  of  writing, 
when  performed  under  the  conditions  just  de- 
scribed. It  is  possible  to  write  with  the  hand 
and  arm  in  a  state  of  muscular  stiffness.  But 
one  does  not  write  so  easily,  so  rapidly,  nor  so 
well  with  the  arm  stiff  as  with  the  arm  normally 
relaxed.  Closer  attention  must  be  paid  to  the 
forming  of  the  letters,  and  more  effort  must  be 
put  forth  to  write  with  the  muscles  stiffened ;  yet 
the  result  is  not  equal  to  that  obtained  with  less 
care  and  labor  under  normal  muscular  conditions. 

All  that  has  been  said  of  muscular  stiffness 
applies  with  especial  force  to  the  vocal  organs. 
Like  the  rest  of  the  muscular  system,  the  muscles 
of  the  vocal  organs  are  arranged  in  opposed  pairs 
and  sets.  The  contraction  of  all  the  muscles  of 
the  throat,  each  opposed  set  or  pair  exerting 
about  the  same  degree  of  strength,  causes  a  con- 


244  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

dition  of  throat  stiffness.  Singing  is  possible  in 
this  condition.  But  the  singer's  command  of  the 
voice  is  not  so  complete  and  satisfactory  as  under 
normal  conditions. 

Throat  stiffness  does  not  altogether  deprive  the 
vocal  organs  of  their  faculty  of  instinctive  ad- 
justment in  obedience  to  the  demands  of  the  ear. 
To  a  fair  extent  the  voice  is  under  the  command 
of  the  singer.  The  vocal  cords  adjust  themselves 
readily  enough  for  the  desired  pitch ;  tones  of  the 
various  degrees  of  loudness  and  softness  can  be 
sung  in  a  fairly  satisfactory  manner.  But  the 
muscles  are  somewhat  hampered  in  their  con- 
tractions, and  the  response  to  the  demands  of  the 
ear  is  not  quite  perfect.  This  lack  of  perfect 
command  is  evidenced  specially  in  the  quality  of 
the  tones.  Some  form  of  throaty  quality  always 
mars  the  voice  when  the  throat  is  in  a  stiffened 
condition.  In  this  regard  the  voice  refuses  to 
fulfill  the  demands  of  the  ear.  Even  though  the 
singer  hears,  and  indeed  feels,  the  effects  of  the 
muscular  tension,  and  strives  to  remedy  the  fault 
of  production,  the  voice  still  refuses  to  respond. 

This  incomplete  command  of  the  voice  is  fre- 
quently observed,   even  among  singers  of  very 


THE    CORRECT   VOCAL   ACTION  245 

high  standing.  At  first  sight  the  condition  here 
described  seems  to  disprove  the  statement  that 
the  voice  normally  obeys  the  ear.  But  there  is  no 
real  contradiction  of  the  psychological  law  of 
vocal  command  in  the  case  of  a  stiff-throated 
singer.  \  For  one  thing,  whatever  degree  of  com- 
mand tnfe  singer  possesses  is  obtained  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  law  of  guidance  by  the  ean 
Moreover,  the  failure  to  secure  perfect  response 
is  due  solely  to  the  interference  with  the  normal 
workings  of  the  voice,  occasioned  by  the  state  of 
throat  stiffness.  Far  from  this  form  of  muscular 
contraction  being  a  contradiction  of  psychological 
principles,  it  will  be  found  on  examination  to  be 
in  perfect  accord  with  well-established  laws  of 
physiological  psychology. 

It  is  hardly  to  be  supposed  that  the  singer  con- 
sciously and  voluntarily  contracts  the  muscles  of 
the  entire  vocal  mechanism  and  so  deliberately 
brings  about  the  stiffening  of  the  throat.  True, 
this  can  readily  be  done.  We  can  at  will  sing 
throaty  and  nasal  tones.  But  this  form  of  volun- 
tary throat  tension  is  not,  properly  speaking,  an 
incorrect  vocal  action.  So  long  as  the  vocal 
organs  respond  to  the  demands  of  the  ear,  the 


246  THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   SINGING 

vocal  action  is  correct.  Only  when  the  voice 
refuses  to  obey  can  the  action  be  described  as 
incorrect. 

A  satisfactory  definition  of  the  various  modes 
of  vocal  action  can  now  be  given.  The  correct 
vocal  action  is  the  natural  operation  of  the  vocal 
organs;  the  voice  normally  obeys  the  commands 
of  the  ear.  An  incorrect  vocal  action  occurs 
when  the  throat  is  stiffened  by  the  involuntary 
contraction  of  the  muscles  of  the  vocal  mechanism. 

This  definition  of  the  vocal  action  does  not 
solve  the  problem  of  tone-production.  It  is  still 
to  be  determined  how  the  involuntary  contraction 
of  the  throat  muscles  is  caused. 


CHAPTEB  II 

THE  CAUSES  OF   THEOAT   STIFFNESS  AND  OF 
INCOEEECT  VOCAL  ACTION 

Involuntaky  contractions  of  the  voluntary 
muscles  can  occur  only  as  reflex  actions.  If  the 
muscles  of  the  vocal  organs  are  subject  to  invol- 
untary contractions,  the  causes  of  these  contrac- 
tions must  be  sought  through  an  investigation  of 
the  subject  of  reflex  actions. 

Eeflex  actions  are  of  several  kinds ;  of  these  the 
simplest  type,  and  the  one  most  easily  studied, 
is  the  muscular  contraction  due  to  the  excitation 
of  the  sensory  nerve  endings  located  in  the  skin. 
Thus  when  the  sole  of  the  foot  of  a  sleeping  per- 
son is  tickled,  the  leg  is  at  first  drawn  up  and 
then  violently  kicked  out.  An  exhaustive  dis- 
cussion of  the  physiological  and  psychological 
features  of  reflex  action  is  not  called  for  here ;  a 
sufficient  understanding  of  the  subject  may  safely 
be  assumed  to  be  possessed  by  the  reader. 

Involuntary  muscular  contractions  often  occur 
as  reflex  actions  without  any  direct  or  tactual 

247 


248  THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF    SINGING 

irritation  of  the  sensory  nerve  endings.  Several 
examples  of  this  form  of  reflex  action  are  now  to 
be  considered.  These  actions  will  be  seen  to  be 
matters  of  such  common  experience  as  to  call  for 
no  special  proof.     They  are  the  following: 

(a)  Eeflex  actions  performed  under  the  in- 
fluence of  sensory  impressions  other  than  those 
of  touch  or  muscular  sense. 

(b)  Involuntary  muscular  contractions  due  to 
nervousness. 

(c)  Contractions  of  the  muscles  of  certain 
members,  caused  by  the  turning  of  the  attention 
specially  to  the  members. 

(d)  Involuntary  contractions  of  muscles,  ac- 
companying the  exertion  of  other  associated  and 
antagonist  muscles,  and  due  to  the  radiation  of 
nerve  impulse. 

(a)  Reflex  Actions  due  to  Sensory  Impressions 
other  than  those  of  Touch  or  Muscular  Sense 

A  wide  range  of  movements  is  included  under 
this  heading.  Of  these  it  is  necessary  to  mention 
only  a  few,  such  as  the  sudden  start  on  the  hear- 
ing of  an  unexpected  noise,  the  instinctive  move- 
ment of  dodging  to  escape  an  approaching  missile, 


THE    CAUSES    OF    THEOAT    STIFFNESS  249 

and  the  raising  of  the  arm  to  ward  off  an  ex- 
pected blow. 

Actions  of  a  somewhat  similar  character  nor- 
mally occur  in  which  it  is  not  easy  to  point  to  the 
excitation  of  any  sense  or  senses.  These  include 
the  instinctive  cowering  attitude  of  fear,  the  play 
of  facial  expression  caused  by  sentiment  and 
emotion,  etc. 

{h)  Involuntary  Actions  due  to  Nervousness 

A  condition  of  marked  nervousness  generally 
causes  the  involuntary  contraction  of  muscles. 
Who  does  not  recall  his  earliest  attempts  at 
** speaking  a  piece"  in  school!  The  trembling  of 
the  lips,  the  twitching  of  the  arms  and  hands,  and 
the  'Vain  attempts  to  govern  the  bodily  move- 
ments, are  an  experience  painful  even  in  the 
recollection. 

Movements  and  contractions  due  to  nervousness 
are  entirely  purposeless ;  they  even  defy  the  most 
earnest  efforts  at  inhibition.  A  marked  feature 
of  this  type  of  involuntary  action  is  the  contrac- 
tion of  antagonist  groups  of  muscles,  productive 
of  muscular  stiffness  of  the  members. 

An  extreme  example  of  this  form  of  nervous- 


250  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

ness  is  offered  by  the  unfortunate  sufferer  from 
stage  fright.  In  this  condition  the  entire  body 
often  stiffens,  and  purposeful  movement  of  any 
kind  becomes  for  a  time  impossible. 

(c)  Contractions  caused  hy  Special  Attention  to 
Certain  Members 

Suppose  a  small  boy  of  sensitive  nature  to 
enter  a  room  suddenly,  and  to  be  at  once  chided 
for  his  awkwardness.  His  body  will  probably 
stiffen,  and  his  awkwardness  become  more  pro- 
nounced. Now  call  his  attention  to  his  hands 
and  tell  him  he  is  holding  them  badly.  His  arms 
and  hands  will  immediately  become  painfully 
stiff.  Speak  of  his  feet  and  his  legs  come  on 
tension.  Whatever  member  his  attention  is 
turned  to,  the  muscles  of  that  part  contract 
involuntarily. 

Photographers  sometimes  have  to  contend  with 
this  form  of  involuntary  action  on  the  part  of 
their  sitters.  "When  the  hands  are  to  be  posed 
the  arms  stiffen ;  so  also  do  the  legs,  the  shoulders, 
and  the  neck,  each  when  its  turn  comes  to  receive 
attention. 

Under  normal  conditions  this  form  of  awkward- 
ness is  easily  overcome.     Sitting  for  a  photograph 


THE    CAUSES    OF    THROAT    STIFFNESS  251 

soon  becomes  a  simple  matter.  The  boy  outgrows 
the  awkward  stage  and  gradually  acquires  a 
natural  and  easy  bearing.  Muscular  stiffening 
due  to  attention  to  special  members  is  usually  the 
result  of  an  uncomfortable  feeling  of  being  out  of 
one's  element,  and  ill  at  ease  in  one's  surround- 
ings. So  soon  as  this  feeling  wears  off,  the 
tendency  to  this  form  of  stiffness  disappears. 

(d)  Contractions  of  Muscles  due  to  the  Radiation 
of  Nerve  Impulse 

A  voluntary  exertion  of  some  of  the  muscles 
of  a  member  sometimes  causes  the  involuntary 
contraction  of  all  the  other  muscles  of  the  part. 
As  will  readily  be  seen,  the  exercise  then  takes 
place  under  conditions  of  muscular  stiffness. 
This  is  commonly  a  feature  of  the  unskilful  and 
unaccustomed  performance  of  muscular  activities. 
A  few  examples  will  serve  to  illustrate  this  type 
of  involuntary  contraction  better  than  a  lengthy 
discussion  of  the  physio-psychological  principles 
involved. 

When  a  novice  takes  his  first  lesson  in  riding 
a  bicycle  he  clutches  the  handle  bars  in  a  vise-like 
grip.    His  knees  are  so  stiff  as  to  bend  only  with 


252  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

a  great  exertion  of  strength.  To  steer  the  wheel 
the  learner  must  put  forth  his  most  powerful 
muscular  efforts.  A  half-hour  lesson  in  bicycle 
riding  often  tires  the  beginner  more  than  an 
afternoon's  ride  does  the  experienced  cyclist. 

This  condition  of  muscular  stiffness  is  due  to 
the  contraction  of  antagonist  groups  of  muscles, 
involving  practically  the  entire  body.  In  one 
sense  the  excessive  muscular  contractions  are 
involuntary;  yet  it  would  not  be  easy  to  define 
where  the  voluntary  element  of  the  contractions 
leaves  off. 

A  similar  excessive  expenditure  of  strength 
may  be  seen  in  the  attempt  of  an  illiterate  laborer 
to  sign  his  name.  He  grips  the  pen  as  though  it 
were  a  crowbar,  and  puts  forth  enough  strength 
to  handle  a  twenty-pound  weight.  Learning  to 
dance,  or  to  skate,  or  to  row  a  boat,  is  usually 
accompanied  in  the  beginning  by  this  form  of 
muscular  stiffness. 

As  skill  is  acquired  by  practice  in  the  perform- 
ance of  complex  activities,  the  undue  muscular 
tension  of  the  initial  stage  is  gradually  relaxed. 

There  is  another  way  in  which  the  radiation  of 
nerve  impulse  may  be  caused,  entirely  distinct 


THE    CAUSES   OF   THROAT    STIFFNESS  253 

from  the  lack  of  use  or  skill.  Muscular  stiffness 
may  be  induced  in  the  case  of  activities  so 
thoroughly  habitual  as  to  be  normally  performed 
automatically.  The  cause  of  muscular  stiffness 
now  to  be  considered  is  the  attempt  to  perform 
complex  activities  mechanically,  that  is,  by  con- 
sciously directing  the  individual  component  move- 
ments and  muscular  contractions  involved  in  the 
actions.  Involuntary  contractions  of  associated 
and  antagonist  muscles  take  place  under  these 
conditions,  in  addition  to  the  voluntary  exercise 
of  the  muscles  normally  exerted  in  the  movements. 

This  fact  may  be  illustrated  by  attempting  to 
write  a  few  lines,  and  forming  every  stroke  of 
each  letter  by  a  distinct  exercise  of  the  will.  If 
you  keep  up  this  attempt  for  ten  minutes  you  will 
find  that  you  press  upon  the  paper  with  many 
times  your  accustomed  weight.  The  hand  stiff- 
ens in  consequence  of  the  close  attention  paid  to 
its  movements.  This  stiffness  will  extend  to  the 
arm,  and  even  to  the  shoulder,  if  the  exercise  be 
continued  long  enough  and  with  sufficient  intensity 
of  attention  to  the  hand. 

Another  good  illustration  of  this  form  of  mus- 
cular stiffening  may  be  found  by  walking  up- 


254  THE   PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

stairs,  and  paying  the  same  kind  of  attention  to 
the  muscular  actions.  Try  to  ascend  a  single 
flight  of  stairs,  performing  each  elementary  move- 
ment by  a  distinct  volitional  impulse.  Pause  on 
the  first  step  to  secure  perfect  balance  on  one 
foot;  raise  the  other  foot,  bending  the  leg  at  the 
knee,  then  place  this  foot  carefully  on  the  next 
higher  step.  Now  gradually  shift  the  weight  of 
the  body  from  the  lower  to  the  higher  foot ;  as  the 
body  inclines  forward,  exert  the  muscles  of  the 
back  and  sides  to  preserve  your  balance;  -then 
contract  the  leg  muscles  so  as  to  raise  the  body 
to  the  higher  step,  with  the  weight  supported  on 
that  foot.  Eepeat  this  operation  for  each  step. 
To  mount  one  flight  of  stairs  in  this  way  will  tire 
you  more  than  ascending  a  half  dozen  flights  in 
the  ordinary  automatic  way. 

All  four  of  the  types  of  involuntary  muscular 
contraction  just  desci^ibed  may  be  combined  in  a 
single  instance.  An  inexperienced  violin  soloist, 
such  as  a  student  playing  at  a  conservatory  re- 
cital, often  exemplifies  this.  Nervousness  and 
awkwardness  cause  him  to  tremble;  the  scratchy 
sound  of  his  tones  makes  him  twitch  and  start; 
meanwhile,  the  close  attention  paid  to  his  finger- 


THE    CAUSES    OF    THROAT    STIFFNESS  255 

ing  and  bowing  stiffens  Ms  arms  and  completes 
his  difficulty. 

The  vocal  organs  are  peculiarly  subject  to  the 
forms  of  involuntary  muscular  contraction  under 
consideration.  Each  of  the  causes  of  muscular 
tension  may  exert  its  special  influence  on  the 
voice.  Let  us  go  over  the  ground  once  more,  this 
time  with  special  reference  to  the  actions  of  the 
throat  muscles. 

(a)  Reflex  Actions  of  the  Muscles  of  the  Vocal 
Organs,  Independent  of  Direct  Sensory  Excitation 

Involuntary  actions  of  the  vocal  organs  nor- 
mally occur  in  response  to  stimuli  furnished  by 
the  emotions  and  feelings.  Every  one  is  familiar 
with  the  shout  of  triumph,  the  sigh  of  relief,  and 
the  ejaculation  of  surprise.  Some  emotions  cause 
a  convulsive  stiffening  of  the  muscles  of  the  vocal 
organs  so  complete  as  to  render  tone-production 
for  a  time  absolutely  impossible.  **  Speechless 
with  terror,"  ** breathless  with  apprehension," 
are  expressions  which  accurately  describe  psy- 
chological processes.  A  crowd  of  people  watching 
a  difficult  rescue  of  a  drowning  man  is  silent  so 
long  as  the  uncertainty  lasts.  A  shout  instantly 
goes  up  when  the  rescue  is  seen  to  be   safely 


256  THE   PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

effected.  Both  the  silence  of  the  nervous  strain 
and  the  shout  of  relief  are  normal  involuntary 
responses  to  the  emotional  states. 

(b)  The  Influence  of  Nervousness  on  the  Vocal 
Action 

Nervous  conditions  exert  a  striking  influence 
on  the  operations  of  the  voice.  Even  when  our 
self-control  under  trying  conditions  is  complete 
in  all  other  respects  we  are  often  unable  to  pre- 
vent our  voices  betraying  our  nervous  state. 
Stage  fright,  an  extreme  form  of  nervousness, 
sometimes  deprives  the  sufferer  entirely  of  the 
power  of  speech.  This  temporary  loss  of  vocal 
command  is  not  due  to  an  inability  to  innervate 
the  muscles  of  the  vocal  organs ;  on  the  contrary, 
it  is  caused  by  extreme  muscular  stiffness  due  to 
the  violent,  though  involuntary,  contraction  of 
all  the  muscles  of  the  vocal  organs. 

Under  normal  conditions,  entirely  aside  from 
nervousness,  the  voice  instinctively  reflects  every 
phase  of  sentiment  and  emotion.  Love  and  hate, 
sorrow  and  joy,  anger,  fear,  and  rage,  each  is 
clearly  expressed  by  the  quality  of  the  tones, 
independent  of  the  meaning  of  the  spoken  words. 


THE    CAUSES    OF    THEOAT    STIFFNESS  257 

All  these  fine  shades  of  tone  qnality  result  from 
muscular  adjustments  of  the  vocal  mechanism. 
In  some  mysterious  manner  the  outflow  of  motor 
impulses  to  the  throat  muscles  is  governed  by  the 
nervous  and  emotional  states. 

This  form  of  muscular  contraction  is  in  one 
sense  not  involuntary.  As  the  voice  is  volun- 
tarily used,  all  the  muscular  contractions  involved 
are  voluntary.  Yet  the  minute  contractions  pro- 
ducing tone  qualities  expressive  of  emotion  are 
distinctly  involuntary.  More  than  this,  these 
contractions  cannot  usually  be  inhibited.  An 
angry  man  cannot  make  his  voice  sound  other 
than  angry.  Our  voices  often  betray  our  feel- 
ings in  spite  of  the  most  earnest  efforts  at 
concealment. 

While  the  voice  always  normally  and  involun- 
tarily adopts  the  tone  quality  indicative  of  the 
emotional  state,  this  action  of  the  vocal  organs 
may  be  voluntarily  and  purposely  performed.  A 
perfect  command  of  these  fine  shades  of  tone 
quality  renders  the  voice  a  very  potent  instrument 
of  expression.  For  the  purposes  of  dramatic 
singing  this  form  of  vocal  expression  might  be  of 
great  value.    It  is  to  be  regretted  that  dramatic 

17 


258  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

singers  of  this  day  pay  so  little  attention  to  purely 
tonal  expressiveness.  This  is  probably  due  in 
great  measure  to  the  prevalence  of  throat  stiff- 
ness, which  robs  the  voice  of  much  of  its  ex- 
pressive power. 

(c)  Contractions  of  the  Throat  Muscles,  caused 
hy  Attention  to  the  Throat 

When  a  physician  attempts  to  examine  a  child's 
throat,  the  tendency  of  the  throat  muscles  to  this 
form  of  involuntary  contractions  is  apt"  to  be 
evidenced.  The  jaw  stiffens  and  the  tongue  rises ; 
for  a  time  the  rebellious  little  throat  refuses  to 
remain  quiet  and  relaxed. 

People  usually  have  some  such  difficulty  the 
first  time  they  submit  to  examination  with  the 
laryngoscope.  This  is  very  apt  to  occur,  even  in 
the  case  of  experienced  singers.  Needless  to  say, 
this  form  of  muscular  contraction  is  entirely 
involuntary;  it  even  defies  the  most  earnest 
attempts  at  prevention.  Comparatively  little 
experience  is  required  for  normal  people  to  over- 
come this  tendency.  The  throat  usually  becomes 
tractable  after  one  or  two  trials  with  the 
laryngoscope. 


THE    CAUSES    OF    THROAT    STIFFNESS  259 

Vocalists  are  well  aware  of  the  proneness  of 
one  part  of  the  vocal  mechanism,  the  tongue, 
to  stiffen  in  consequence  of  direct  attention 
being  paid  to  this  member.  In  this  connection 
Franggon-Davies  remarks:  *'When  the  writer 
in  early  student  days  concentrated  his  attention 
upon  his  tongue  he  found  that  this  member 
became  very  stiff  and  unruly  indeed/'  {The 
Singing  of  the  Future,  London,  1906.)  Leo 
Kofler  speaks  of  the  same  tendency:  **Tell  a 
pupil  to  let  his  tongue  lie  flat  in  his  mouth;  he 
draws  it  back  till  it  dams  up  his  throat."  {Wer- 
ner's Magazine,  Oct.,  1899.) 

{d)  Throat  Stiffness  due  to   the  Radiation  of 
Nerve  Impulse 

Two  types  of  muscular  tension  due  to  the 
radiation  of  motor  impulses  were  noted ;  first,  the 
stiffness  incident  to  the  early  stages  of  practice 
in  complex  activities ;  second,  the  stiffness  caused 
by  the  attempt  to  perform  complex  activities  in  a 
mechanical  manner  by  pa3dng  attention  to  the 
individual  component  movements  and  contrac- 
tions. To  both  these  types  of  muscular  stiffness 
the  voice  is  especially  subject. 


260  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

It  is  not  easy  to  find  a  perfect  illustration  of 
throat  stiffness  incident  to  the  early  stages  of 
instruction  in  singing.  For  this  the  chief  reason 
is  that  the  later  form  of  stiffness,  due  to  the 
attempt  directly  to  manage  the  vocal  organs,  is 
much  more  pronounced  than  the  temporary  early 
tension.  As  good  an  example  as  possible  would 
be  the  following:  Let  some  one  possessed  of  a 
fine  natural  untrained  voice  sing  a  steady  tone 
and  then  attempt  to  trill  on  the  same  note.  The 
attempted  trill  will  invariably  indicate  a  much 
higher  degree  of  stiffness  than  the  single  tone. 

Several  investigators  of  the  voice  have  noticed 
the  tendency  of  the  throat  to  stiffen  when  the 
singer  tries  to  manage  the  voice  by  paying  direct 
attention  to  the  mechanical  action.  Clara  Kath- 
leen Eogers  points  this  out  clearly  in  the  following 
passage:  '* There  exists  a  possible  and  a  dan- 
gerous obstacle  to  the  performance  of  the  natural 
mission  of  the  voice.  That  obstacle  is  what?  It 
is  a  superfluous  and  misdirected  mental  activity 
which  is  fruitful  of  a  corresponding  obstruction 
on  the  part  of  the  body.  In  the  body  this 
obstruction  takes  the  form  of  superfluous  or 
unnatural  tension."     {The  Philosophy  of  Sing- 


THE    CAUSES    OF    THROAT    STIFFNESS  261 

ingj  N.  Y.,  1893.)  Prof.  Scripture  describes  in 
scientific  language  tlie  results  of  any  attempt 
directly  to  manage  the  vocal  organs.  Speaking 
of  the  use  of  the  voice  under  unfavorable  condi- 
tions, he  says:  **The  attempt  is  instinctively 
made  by  the  speaker  or  singer  to  correct  such  a 
fault  by  voluntary  innervation  of  the  muscles; 
this  cannot  succeed  perfectly  because  an  increase 
of  innervation  brings  about  contractions  of  asso- 
ciated and  antagonist  muscles  with  the  result  of 
changed  conditions  and  changed  sounds.  Such 
extra  muscular  effort  is,  moreover,  very  fa- 
tiguing.'' {The  Elements  of  Experimental  Pho- 
netics, 1902.) 

For  the  purposes  of  scientific  voice  culture 
this  is  one  of  the  most  important  facts  which  have 
been  determined.  The  attempt  to  manage  the 
voice,  by  paying  attention  to  the  mechanical 
operations  of  the  vocal  organs,  causes  an  invol- 
untary contraction  of  all  the  throat  muscles,  and 
so  interferes  with  the  normal  instinctive  vocal 
action.  Even  the  mere  thinking  of  the  throat  in 
singing,  and  especially  in  practising,  is  enough 
to  induce  throat  stiffness. 


CHAPTER   III 

THEOAT   STIFFNESS  AND  INCOERECT  SINGING 

It  is  a  lamentable  fact  that  most  of  the  singing 
heard  nowadays  gives  evidence  of  throat  stiff- 
ness. Perfect  singing  becomes  more  rare  with 
each  succeeding  year.  The  yomiger  generation 
of  artists  in  particular  evince  a  marked  tendency 
to  this  fault  of  production. 

Considered  as  a  cause  of  faulty  tone-production 
in  singing,  throat  stiffness  is  due  to  only  one 
influence,  viz.,  the  attempt  to  manage  the  voice 
by  thinking  of  the  vocal  organs  and  their  me- 
chanical operations.  Muscular  tension  due  to 
nervousness,  or  to  the  unskilful  nature  of  first 
attempts  at  singing,  cannot  be  looked  upon  as 
causing  a  wrong  vocal  action.  In  the  case  of 
nervousness  the  lack  of  vocal  command  faithfully 
reflects  the  psychological  condition  of  the  singer; 
the  imperfect  response  of  the  voice  is  normal  to 
this  condition.  The  stiffness  due  to  first  attempts 
is  also  perfectly  normal.  Moreover,  both  these 
forms  of  throat   stiffness   are   temporary;   they 


THROAT  STIFFNESS  AND  INCOERECT  SINGING    263 

disappear  when  the  cause,  nervousness  or  lack  of 
skill,  is  removed. 

Throat  stiffness  does  not  necessarily  destroy 
the  musical  character  of  the  voice.  Very  many 
degrees  and  varieties  of  excessive  throat  tension 
are  possible.  The  undue  muscular  exertion  may 
be  so  slight  in  degree  that  the  throat  stiffness 
can  be  detected  in  the  sound  of  the  tones  only  by 
a  highly  sensitive  and  observant  hearer.  Or  on 
the  other  hand,  the  muscles  of  the  entire  throat 
may  be  so  powerfully  contracted  that  the  singer 
has  only  a  very  imperfect  command  of  the  voice. 
Between  the  two  extremes,  perfect  tone-production 
and  exaggerated  stiffness,  every  conceivable  shade 
of  difference  in  degree  of  undue  tension  might  be 
illustrated  in  the  case  of  some  prominent  singer. 

Faulty  tone-production  manifests  itself  in  two 
ways ;  first,  in  its  effects  on  the  tones  of  the  voice ; 
second,  in  its  effects  on  the  singer's  throat.  Let 
us  consider  each  of  these  topics  separately. 

The  Effect  of  Throat  Stiffness  on  the  Sound  of 
the  Voice 

In  whatever  degree  throat  stiffness  is  present, 
to  just  that  extent  the  voice  sacrifices  something 


264  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

of  its  capabilities  as  a  musical  instrument.  The 
voice  can  realize  its  full  natural  resources  of 
beauty,  range,  power,  and  flexibility  only  when 
the  throat  is  absolutely  free  from  undue  tension. 
As  regards  the  quality  of  the  tones,  every  phase 
of  undue  throat  tension  has  its  effect  on  the 
sound  of  the  voice.  These  effects  are  always  bad ; 
the  same  voice  is  less  beautiful  when  used  in  a 
stiffened  condition  than  when  perfectly  produced. 
Throaty  and  nasal  tones  are  always  more  or  less 
harsh  and  offensive  to  the  sensitive  hearer. 
Further,  the  more  pronounced  the  state  of  throat 
stiffness  the  more  marked  does  the  throaty  or 
nasal  quality  become. 

Under  conditions  of  throat  tension  the  range 
of  the  voice  is  almost  always  curtailed.  The 
highest  and  lowest  notes  possible  to  any  voice  can 
be  reached  only  when  the  throat  is  entirely  free 
from  stiffness.  So  also  with  regard  to  the  vary- 
ing degrees  of  power,  undue  tension  prevents  the 
singer  from  obtaining  the  extreme  effects.  A 
throaty  singer's  soft  tones  generally  lack  the 
carrying  quality.  Louder  tones  can  be  produced 
with  a  normally  relaxed  than  with  a  stiffened 
throat. 


THROAT  STIFFNESS  AND  INCORRECT  SINGING    265 

Eeal  flexibility  of  voice  is  impossible  to  a  stiff- 
tbroated  singer.  Extreme  rapidity  and  accuracy 
of  muscular  adjustments,  the  physical  basis  of 
coloratura  singing,  cannot  be  attained  when  the 
muscles  are  hampered  by  undue  tension. 

A  distinct  fault  of  production,  the  tremolo,  is 
directly  due  to  throat  stiffness.  A  simple  experi- 
ment illustrates  the  nature  of  the  muscular  action 
from  which  the  tremolo  results.  **Set^'  the  mus- 
cles of  the  arm  by  contracting  the  biceps  and 
triceps  with  the  utmost  possible  strength.  With 
the  arm  in  this  stiffened  condition  flex  and  extend 
the  forearm  slowly  several  times.  You  will 
notice  a  pronounced  trembling  of  the  arm.  Why 
a  condition  of  muscular  stiffness  should  cause  the 
affected  member  to  tremble  is  not  well  under- 
stood. But  the  fact  admits  of  no  question.  It  is 
highly  probable  that  the  tremolo  is  caused  by  a 
trembling  of  the  vocal  organs,  due  to  muscular 
stiffness.  The  tones  of  a  voice  afflicted  with 
tremolo  always  give  evidence  of  extreme  throat 
tension. 

Another  bad  result  of  throat  stiffness  in  tone- 
production  is  seen  in  the  matter  of  intonation. 
Tones  produced  with  a  stiff  throat  are  seldom  in 


286  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

perfect  tune.     This   subject  will  be  more   fully 
treated  in  a  later  chapter. 

Effects  of  Muscular  Stiffness  on  the  Throat 

Many  of  the  muscles  of  the  vocal  organs,  par- 
ticularly the  laryngeal  muscles,  are  extremely 
small  and  delicate.  Under  normal  conditions 
these  muscles  are  fully  capable  of  exerting  the 
relatively  small  amount  of  strength  required  of 
them  without  strain  or  injury.  But  when  the 
voice  is  used  in  a  stiffened  condition  the  delicate 
muscles  of  the  larynx  are  obliged  to  contract  with 
much  more  than  their  normal  strength.  To  bor- 
row an  expression  of  the  engineers,  the  throat 
muscles  are  then  forced  to  carry  an  excessive 
load. 

A  balanced  contraction  of  antagonist  groups 
of  muscles  is  the  muscular  basis  of  throat  stiff- 
ness. When  the  voice  is  used  in  this  condition 
each  muscle  of  the  vocal  organs  must  put  forth 
the  amount  of  effort  necessary  to  produce  the 
desired  effect  under  normal  conditions,  in  addi- 
tion to  an  effort  equal  to  the  counterbalancing 
pull  of  its  antagonist  muscle.  An  increase  in  the 
degree  of  throat  stiffness  demands  a  correspond- 


THEOAT  STIFFNESS  AND  INCORRECT  SINGING    267 

ing  increase  in  the  effort  exerted  by  every  muscle 
of  the  throat. 

Over-exertion  of  muscles  always  results  in 
strain  and  injury.  The  extent  of  the  injury  to 
the  muscular  tissues  varies  with  the  degree  of 
excessive  exertion  and  with  the  duration  of  the 
injurious  exercise.  An  advanced  stage  of  mus- 
cular strain  is  distinctly  a  pathological  condition 

Tone-production  in  a  state  of  throat  stiffness  is 
of  necessity  injurious  to  the  muscles  of  the  vocal 
organs.  The  delicate  laryngeal  muscles  are 
specially  subject  to  the  injurious  effects  of  strain. 
These  effects  vary  in  extent  and  character,  ac- 
cording to  the  degree  of  throat  stiffness,  to  the 
extent  and  duration  of  the  faulty  use  of  the  voice, 
and  to  the  individual  characteristics  of  the  singer. 
A  very  slight  degree  of  undue  tension  may  not 
sensibly  injure  the  voice.  Even  a  fairly  marked 
condition  of  tension,  such  as  is  evidenced  by  the 
uniformly  throaty  quality  of  many  baritones  and 
mezzo-sopranos,  may  be  persisted  in  for  years 
without  perceptibly  straining  the  throat  or  de- 
stroying the  musical  value  of  the  voice.  But  a 
misuse  of  the  voice  is  bound,  in  the  course  of 
time,  to  show  its  injurious  results  on  the  throat. 


268  THE   PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

How  many  promising  young  singers  are  forced 
to  abandon  their  careers  in  early  life,  at  the  time 
when  their  artistic  and  dramatic  powers  are  just 
ripening  to  fruition!  A  misused  voice  *Vears 
out"  years  before  its  time. 

Most  of  the  throat  troubles  of  singers  are 
directly  caused  by  throat  stiffness  and  muscular 
strain.  Dr.  Mills,  among  others,  touches  on  this 
fact.  **A11  the  author's  experience  as  a  laryn- 
gologist  tended  to  convince  him  that  most  of 
those  evils  from  which  speakers  and  singers 
suffer,  whatever  the  part  of  the  vocal  mechanism 
affected,  arise  from  faulty  methods  of  voice  pro- 
duction, or  excess  in  the  use  of  methods  in  them- 
selves correct.''  (Voice  Production  in  Singing 
and  Speaking,  Phila.,  1906.) 

For  the  purposes  of  artistic  singing,  a  voice 
loses  all  its  value  when  the  injurious  effects  of 
throat  stiffness  become  very  pronounced.  On 
this  account  singers  are  obliged  to  give  up  ap- 
pearing in  public  before  the  condition  reaches  the 
extreme.  It  follows  therefore  that  only  in  the 
case  of  public  speakers  do  we  see  the  extreme 
results  of  persistence  in  the  wrong  use  of  the 
voice.    '* Clergyman's  sore  throat"  is  the  name 


THROAT  STIFFNESS  AND  INCORRECT  SINGING    269 

usually  applied  to  this  condition.  The  sustained 
use  of  the  voice,  under  conditions  of  extreme 
strain,  is  exceedingly  painful  both  to  the  speaker 
and  to  the  hearer. 

Singers  are  usually  unconscious  of  throat  stiff- 
ness unless  the  condition  be  very  pronounced. 
Neither  the  sense  of  hearing  nor  the  muscular 
sense  informs  the  singer  of  the  state  of  tension. 
Accustomed  to  the  sound  of  his  own  voice,  the 
singer  may  be  unaware  of  a  throaty  or  nasal 
quality  which  he  would  instantly  detect  in  another 
voice.  This  is  also  true  of  the  muscular  sensa- 
tions of  tone-production;  habit  makes  the  singer 
inattentive  to  the  sensations  caused  by  throat 
tension. 

Throat  stiffness  always  tends  to  become  greater 
in  degree;  it  is  a  self- aggravating  condition. 
Even  though  very  slight  in  its  beginnings,  the 
state  of  stiffness  obliges  the  singer  to  put  forth 
more  than  the  normal  effort  in  order  to  secure 
the  desired  effects.  This  increase  of  innervation 
is  not  confined  to  the  muscles  which  need  to  be 
more  strongly  contracted.  As  Prof.  Scripture 
points  out,  it  also  extends  to  the  associated  and 
antagonist  muscles,  that  is,  to  all  the  muscles 


270  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

of  the  throat.  Thus  the  stiffness  is  increased  in 
degree.  Still  greater  exertion  is  then  required, 
resulting  in  still  greater  stiffness.  This  may  go 
on  for  years,  the  voice  gradually  becoming  less 
responsive  to  the  demands  of  the  singer. 

Individual  personal  characteristics  are  an  im- 
portant factor  in  determining  a  singer's  experi- 
ence with  throat  stiffness.  Some  singers  are  so 
fortunately  constituted  as  to  be  almost  entirely 
free  from  the  tendency  to  stiffen  the  throat. 
Others  detect  the  tendency  in  its  beginning  and 
find  no  difficulty  in  correcting  it.  Still  others 
habituate  themselves  to  some  manner  of  tone- 
production,  and  neither  increase  nor  diminish  the 
degree  of  stiffness.  Even  under  modern  methods 
of  instruction,  many  artists  are  correctly  trained 
from  the  start  and  so  never  stiffen  their  throats 
in  any  way. 

Several  traits  of  character  are  concerned  in 
determining  the  individual  tendency  to  throat 
stiffness.  Nervous  temperament,  keenness  of  ear, 
artistic  and  musical  endowment,  each  has  its 
influence  in  this  connection. 

The  great  prevalence  of  throat  stiffness  among 
present-day  singers  is  due  primarily  to  the  idea 


THROAT  STIFFNESS  AND  INCORRECT  SINGING    271 

of  mechanical  vocal  management  as  the  basis  of 
instruction  in  singing.  Not  only  are  modern 
methods  intrinsically  worthless,  in  that  a  correct 
use  of  the  voice  cannot  be  attained  by  the  appli- 
cation of  mechanical  rnles.  Worse  than  this,  the 
means  used  for  training  the  voice  are  snch  as  to 
defeat  their  own  purpose.  At  every  instant  of 
instruction  the  student's  attention  is  expressly 
turned  to  the  vocal  organs  and  to  the  mechanical 
operations  of  the  voice.  The  only  possible  result 
of  this  kind  of  vocal  instruction  is  to  stiffen  the 
throat  and  so  to  render  the  correct  vocal  action 
an  impossibility. 

A  peculiar  contradiction  is  presented  by  the 
modern  vocal  teacher;  his  artistic  conception  of 
singing  is  utterly  at  variance  with  his  ideas  of 
mechanical  tone-production.  It  may  safely  be 
said  that  the  vast  majority  of  vocal  teachers  are 
thoroughly  conversant  with  the  highest  standards 
of  artistic  singing.  They,  know  what  effects  their 
pupils  ought  to  obtain.  But  the  means  they  use 
for  enabling  the  pupils  to  get  these  effects  have 
exactly  the  contrary  result.  When  the  student 
tries  to  open  the  throat  this  obstinate  organ  only 
closes    the    tighter.     Attempting    to    correct    a 


272  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

tremolo  by  **  holding  the  throat  steady  *'  causes 
the  throat  to  tremble  all  the  more. 

Modern  voice  culture,  in  its  practical  aspect, 
is  a  struggle  with  throat  stiffness.  Everything 
the  student  does,  for  the  purpose  of  acquiring 
direct  command  of  the  voice,  has  some  influence 
in  causing  the  throat  to  stiffen.  Telling  the 
student  to  hold  the  throat  relaxed  seldom  effects 
a  cure ;  this  direction  includes  a  primary  cause  of 
tension, — the  turning  of  attention  to  the  throat. 
All  the  teacher  can  do  to  counteract  the  stiffening 
influence  is  to  give  relaxing  exercises.  These  are 
in  most  cases  efficacious  so  long  as  constructive 
instruction  is  abandoned,  and  the  relaxing  of  the 
throat  is  made  the  sole  purpose  of  study.  But 
soon  after  positive  instruction  is  resumed  the 
tendency  to  stiffen  reappears.  As  lesson  follows 
after  lesson,  the  stiffness  becomes  gradually,  im- 
perceptibly more  pronounced.  At  length  the 
time  again  comes  for  relaxing  exercises. 

A  single  repetition  of  this  process,  relaxing  the 
throat  and  then  stiffening  it  again,  may  extend 
over  several  months  of  study.  During  this  time 
the  student  naturally  learns  a  great  deal  about 
music  and  the  artistic  side  of  singing,  and  also 


THEOAT  STIFFNESS  AND  INCOEEECT  SINGING    273 

improves  the  keenness  of  the  sense  of  hearing. 
This  artistic  development  is  necessarily  reflected 
in  the  voice  so  soon  as  the  throat  is  again  relaxed. 

It  usually  happens  that  students  change  teach- 
ers about  the  time  the  voice  has  become  unman- 
ageably stiff.  In  this  condition  the  student,  of 
course,  sings  rather  badly.  A  marked  improve- 
ment in  the  singing  generally  results  from  the 
change  of  teachers.  This  is  easy  to  understand 
because  the  new  teacher  devotes  his  first  efforts 
to  relaxing  the  stiffened  throat.  Later  on  this 
improvement  is  very  likely  to  be  lost,  for  the 
second  teacher  has  nothing  more  of  a  positive 
nature  to  offer  than  the  first. 

Vocal  teachers  in  general  seem  to  be  aware  of 
the  fact  that  mechanical  instruction  causes  the 
student's  throat  to  stiffen.  A  much-debated  ques- 
tion is  whether  '^ocal  effort"  is  needed  to  bring 
about  the  correct  vocal  action.  The  term  local 
effort  is  used  to  describe  the  direct  innervation 
of  the  throat  muscles.  A  logical  application  of 
the  mechanical  idea  absolutely  demands  the  use 
of  local  effort.  This  is  the  main  argument  of  the 
local-effort  teachers. 

Those  teachers  who  discountenance  local  effort 

18 


274  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

have  only  tlieir  own  experience  to  guide  them. 
They  simply  know  that  local  effort  results  in 
throat  stiffness.  Yet  these  teachers  have  nothing 
to  offer  in  place  of  the  mechanical  management 
of  the  vocal  organs.  Even  though  aware  of  the 
evil  results  of  local  effort,  they  yet  know  of  no 
other  means  of  imparting  the  correct  vocal  action. 
The  T^eakness  of  the  position  of  these  teachers  is 
well  summed  up  by  a  writer  in  Werner's  Maga- 
zine for  June,  1899:  '*To  teach  without  local 
effort  or  local  thought  is  to  teach  in  the  dark. 
Every  exponent  of  the  non-local-effort  theory 
contradicts  his  theory  every  time  he  tells  of  it." 
To  that  extent  this  writer  states  the  case  correctly. 
Every  modern  vocal  teacher  believes  that  the 
voice  must  be  consciously  guided  in  its  muscular 
operations.  Until  this  erroneous  belief  is  aban- 
doned it  is  idle  for  a  teacher  to  decry  the  use  of 
local  effort. 


CHAPTEE  IV 

THE  TEUE  MEANING  OF  VOCAL   TRAINING 

In  all  scientific  treatises  on  the  voice  it  is 
assumed  that  the  voice  has  some  specifically  cor- 
rect mode  of  operation.  Training  the  voice  is 
supposed  to  involve  the  leading  of  the  vocal 
organs  to  abandon  their  natural  and  instinctive 
manner  of  operating,  and  to  adopt  some  other 
form  of  activity.  Further,  the  assumption  is 
made  that  the  student  of  singing  must  cause  the 
vocal  organs  to  adopt  a  supposedly  correct  man- 
ner of  operating  by  paying  direct  attention  to  the 
mechanical  movements  of  tone-production.  Both 
these  assumptions  are  utterly  mistaken.  On 
scientific  analysis  no  difference  is  seen  between 
the  right  and  the  wrong  vocal  action,  such  as  is 
assumed  in  the  accepted  Vocal  Science.  Psy- 
chological principles  do  not  countenance  the  idea 
of  mechanical  vocal  management. 

Yet  the  fact  remains,  as  a  matter  of  empirical 
observation,  that  there  is   a  marked  difference 

275 


276  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

between  the  natural  voice  and  the  correctly 
trained  voice.  What  change  takes  place  in  the 
voice  as  a  result  of  correct  training? 

Singing  is  a  natural  function  of  the  vocal 
organs.  Learning  to  sing  artistically  does  not 
involve  a  departure  from  natural  and  instinctive 
processes.  The  training  of  the  voice  consists  of 
the  acquirement  of  skill  in  the  use  of  the  vocal 
organs,  and  of  nothing  more. 

Under  normal  conditions  the  vocal  organs  in- 
stinctively adjust  themselves,  by  performing  the 
necessary  muscular  contractions,  to  fulfill  the 
demands  of  the  ear.  In  order  that  a  perfect 
musical  tone  be  produced  it  is  necessary  in  the 
first  place  that  the  ear  be  keen  and  well  trained; 
only  such  an  ear  can  know  the  exact  sound  of  a 
perfect  tone,  and  so  demand  it  of  the  voice. 
Second,  the  vocal  organs  must  make  repeated 
efforts  to  produce  the  perfect  tone,  each  response 
approaching  nearer  to  the  mentally-conceived 
tone.  Two  elements  are  therefore  involved  in 
the  training  of  the  voice;  first,  the  cultivation  of 
the  sense  of  hearing;  second,  the  acquirement  of 
\/  skill  in  the  use  of  the  voice  by  the  actual  practice 
of  singing. 


THE  TEUE  MEANING  OF  VOCAL  TEAINING        277 

Practical  vocal  teachers  generally  recognize 
the  importance  of  both  these  elements  of  Voice 
Culture.  Only  in  one  way  do  they  fall  short  of 
fully  realizing  the  value  of  ear  training  and  of 
practice  guided  by  the  ear ; — they  do  not  see  that 
these  two  topics  sum  up  the  whole  material  of 
vocal  training.  Unfortunately,  the  search  after 
some  imaginary  means  of  direct  vocal  manage- 
ment destroys,  in  all  modern  methods,  most  of  the 
value  of  the  real  elements  of  voice  culture. 

A  few  citations  from  standard  writers  on  the 
voice  will  show  the  estimation  in  which  ear-train- 
ing is  held.  To  begin  with,  the  old  Italian  mas- 
ters were  fully  alive  to  the  necessity  of  cultivating 
the  sense  of  hearing,  as  witness  Tosi :  *'One  who 
has  not  a  good  ear  should  not  undertake  either 
to  instruct  or  to  sing."  This  writer  also  says  in 
the  chapter  headed  *' Observations  for  a  student'': 
^^Let  him  hear  as  much  as  he  can  the  most  cele- 
brated singers,  and  likewise  the  most  excellent 
instrumental  performers ;  because  from  the  atten- 
tion in  hearing  them  one  reaps  more  advantage 
than  from  any  instruction  whatsoever." 

Another  early  writer  on  the  voice,  the  celebrated 
Adolph  Bernhard  Marx,  speaks  of  the  advantage 


278  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

derived  from  the  attentive  listening  to  voices: 
**  An  important  injfluence  is  exerted  by  the  frequent 
attentive  hearing  of  good  voices.  Through  this 
an  idea  of  good  tone  is  strengthened,  which  gains 
an  influence  on  the  use  and  also  on  the  training 
of  the  organs,  not  perhaps  immediate,  but  clearly 
seen  in  its  results."  (Die  Kunst  des  Gesanges, 
Berlin,  1826.) 

Among  modem  writers  only  a  few  need  be 
mentioned.  D.  FrangQon-Davies  remarks:  *'The 
training  of  the  ear  is  one  half  of  the  training  of 
the  voice."  {The  Singing  of  the  Future,)  Clara 
Kathleen  Eogers  is  even  more  emphatic  in  her 
statement :  *  ^  Not  to  exercise  our  sense  of  hearing 
is  to  rob  it  gradually  of  the  habit  of  acting  at  all ; 
whereas,  if  we  keep  it  in  exercise,  it  will  daily 
grow  readier,  finer,  more  acute,  more  analytical, 
and  the  ear  will  serve  as  an  ever  more  effective 
medium  of  reaction  on  thawill."  The  following 
remark  of  the  same  writer  points  unmistakably 
to  an  understanding  of  the  evil  results  of  the 
attempt  to  sing  mechanically:  **If  the  singer's 
attention  is  directed  to  any  part  of  the  vocal 
instrument,  or  even  to  its  motor,  the  breath,  his 
sense  of  sound,  and  his  perception  of  either  the 


THE  TRUE  MEANING  OF  VOCAL  TRAINING        279 

beautiful  or  the  bad  elements  in  sound,  will  grow 
fainter  and  fainter.''  {The  Physiology  of 
Singing.) 

As  for  the  purpose  of  cultivating  the  sense  of 
hearing,  this  is  also  pointed  out  by  several  promi- 
nent vocal  theorists.  One  of  the  latest  exponents 
of  the  traditional  method  of  instruction  was 
Stephen  de  la  Madelaine,  who  remarks:  **The 
first  need  of  the  voice  is  to  be  guided  in  its  exer- 
cise by  an  ear  capable  of  appreciating  naturally 
its  least  deviation."  (Theorie  complete  du 
Chant,  Paris,  1852.) 

One  of  the  most  recent  authoritative  writers 
on  voice  culture,  Dr.  Mills,  speaks  at  length  of  the 
necessity  of  guiding  the  voice  by  the  sense  of 
hearing.  '*We  cannot  too  much  insist  on  both 
speaker  and  singer  attending  to  forming  a  con- 
nection between  his  ear  and  his  mouth  cavity. 
He  is  to  hear  that  he  may  produce  good  tones, 
and  the  tones  cannot  be  correctly  formed  if  they 
be  not  well  observed.  /  To  listen  to  one's  self  care- 
fully and  constantly  is  a  most  valuable  but  little 
practised  artJX  The  student  should  listen  as  an 
inexorable  critic,  accepting  only  the  best  from 
himself. ' '  j  Dr.  Mills  touches  on  the  psychological 


280  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

features  of  the  connection  between  voice  and  ear. 
'  *  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  nervous  impulses 
that  pass  from  the  ear  to  the  brain  are  of  all 
sensory  messages  the  most  important  guides  for 
the  outgoing  ones  that  determine  the  necessary- 
movements.'*  Summing  up  the  matter  of  ear- 
training  and  vocal  guidance  Dr.  Mills  says: 
**The  author  would  impress  on  all  students  of 
music,  and  of  the  voice  as  used  in  both  singing 
and  speaking,  the  paramount  importance  of  learn- 
ing early  to  listen  most  attentively  to  others  when 
executing  music ;  and  above  all  to  listen  with  the 
greatest  care  to  themselves,  and  never  to  accept 
any  musical  tone  that  does  not  fully  satisfy 
the  ear."  (Voice  Production  in  Singing  and 
Speaking,  1906.) 

One  more  citation  from  Mrs.  Eogers  must 
suffice.  ^'And  now,  in  conclusion,  let  me  once 
more  remind  the  singer  that  in  practising  these 
and  all  other  vocal  exercises  the  ear  is  the  only 
safe  guide." 

Given  a  fine  natural  voice  and  a  trained  musical 
ear,  skill  is  acquired  in  the  use  of  the  voice  by 
the  repetition  of  effort.  The  only  necessity  is  for 
the  singer  to  have  a  clear  mental  conception  of  the 


THE  TRUE  MEANING  OF  VOCAL  TRAINING        281 

effects  to  be  obtained,  and  to  listen  attentively  to 
the  voice.  With  each  repetition  of  an  exercise, 
whether  on  sustained  tones,  scale  passages,  cres- 
cendo and  diminuendo,  or  whatever  else,  the  voice 
responds  more  spoothly  and  accurately  to  the 
mental  demand.  /Each  time  the  student  practises 
the  exercise  he  listens  to  the  tones  and  notes  how 
they  differ  from  the  desired  effect ;  he  strives  the 
next  time  to  correct  this  departure. \ 

Psychological  principles  verify  the^^roverb  that 
practice  makes  perfect.  This  is  true  of  all  com- 
plex activities.  Through  repeated  performance 
the  muscles,  or  rather  the  motor-nerve  centers, 
become  habituated  to  complex  activities.  Co- 
ordinations gradually  become  perfect  and  auto- 
matic because  the  nerve  impulses  naturally  tend 
to  take  the  well-worn  paths.  To  this  rule  the 
voice  is  no  exception.  Practice  makes  perfect, 
with  the  voice,  as  with  every  other  muscular 
activity. 

In  practical  Voice  Culture  the  ear  and  the  voice 
are  normally  trained  together.  The  proper  func- 
tion of  the  teacher  is  to  guide  the  student  in 
developing  along  the  two  lines.  Listening  to  his 
own  voice  is  a  valuable  means  for  the  student  to 


282  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

develop  his  sense  of  hearing.  It  is  for  the  master 
to  point  out  the  salient  qualities  and  faults  in  the 
pupil's  tones  in  order  that  the  pupil  may  know 
what  to  listen  for.  As  the  ear  gradually  becomes 
keener  and  better  acquainted  with  the  character- 
istics of  perfect  singing,  it  also  becomes  more 
exacting  in  its  demands  on  the  voice.  In  its 
turn  the  voice  steadily  improves  in  its  responsive- 
ness to  the  ear. . 

Skill  in  using  the  voice  involves  something  more 
than  has  thus  far  been  considered  under  the  head 
of  tone-production.  Skill  in  singing  is  synony- 
mous with  finished  vocal  technique,  and  the  basis 
of  technique  is  the  correctly  produced  single  tone. 
It  is  seen  that  a  single  tone  can  be  sung  correctly 
when,  first,  the  singer  knows  the  sound  of  the 
perfect  musical  tone,  and  second,  the  vocal  organs 
are  not  hampered  by  muscular  stiffness.  When 
these  conditions  are  fulfilled  nothing  but  practice 
is  needed  for  the  acquirement  of  technical  skill. 

Coloratura  singing  presents  the  highest  de- 
velopment of  vocal  technique.  Dazzling  as  the 
effects  of  coloratura  are,  they  are  obtained  by  the 
combination  of  a  few  simple  elements.  Perfect 
command  of  the  single  tone  throughout  the  entire 


THE  TRUE  MEANING  OF  VOCAL  TRAINING        283 

compass  of  the  voice,  with  accurately  graded 
crescendo  and  diminuendo,  the  clear,  rapid,  and 
accurate  transition  from  one  note  to  another  in 
the  varying  degrees  of  staccato  and  legato, — 
these  elements  include  the  whole  physical  material 
of  vocal  technique. 

Training  the  voice  is  one  concrete  process.  Its 
component  features  may  be  considered  sepa- 
rately ;  the  cultivation  of  the  sense  of  hearing,  the 
acquirement  of  command  of  the  single  tone,  and 
the  development  of  technical  skill, — each  may  be 
considered  apart  from  its  companion  processes. 
But  in  actual  practice  the  three  elements  of  Voice 
Culture  cannot  be  dissociated.  The  student  of 
singing  progresses  simultaneously  along  all  three 
lines.  Intelligently  directed  practice  in  singing 
results  in  this  simultaneous  progress.  As  the 
voice  depends  for  guidance  on  the  ear,  so  the  ear 
benefits  by  the  improvement  of  the  voice.  Each 
advance  made  by  the  voice  toward  the  perfect 
production  of  tone  is  marked  by  a  greater  facility 
in  the  technical  use  of  the  voice.  ^Correct  tone- 
production  cannot  be  directly  acqoiired  by  the 
singing  of  single  tones.     This  practice  would  tend 


284  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

to  stiffen  the  throat.  Technique  and  tone-pro- 
duction must  be  developed  together. 

There  is  a  difference  between  the  natural  and 
the  properly  trained  voice.  As  to  the  nature  of 
this  difference  the  facts  of  empirical  observation 
are  borne  out  by  the  results  of  scientific  analysis. 
The  natural  voice  is  crude  because  it  is  unskilfully 
used.  A  lack  of  facility  is  revealed  in  the  un- 
trained singer's  handling  of  the  voice.  Intona- 
tions are  imperfect ;  transitions  from  note  to  note 
are  rough ;  the  whole  effect  indicates  that  the  voice 
is  not  completely  under  the  command  of  the  singer. 
Further,  the  sound  of  the  individual  tones  betrays 
faults  of  production.  The  tones  are  more  or  less 
throaty  or  nasal,  or  indicative  of  some  degree  of 
muscular  tension. 

A  perfectly  used  voice,  on  the  other  hand,  con- 
vinces the  hearer  that  the  singer  has  full  command 
of  all  the  resources  of  the  vocal  organs.  Each 
tone  is  a  perfect  musical  sound,  free  from  fault 
or  blemish.  The  voice  moves  from  one  note  to 
another  with  ease  and  with  purity  of  intonation. 
All  the  gradations  of  loud  and  soft,  all  the  lights 
and  shades  of  sentiment  or  passion,  seem  to 
respond  directly  to  the  singer's  instinctive  desire 


THE  TRUE  MEANING  OF  VOCAL  TRAINING        285 

for  musical  expression.  On  the  physical  side  the 
singer's  voice  is  felt  by  the  hearer  to  be  in  a 
condition  of  balanced  and  harmonious  muscular 
activity. 

When  the  possessor  of  a  good  natural  voice 
goes  through  a  proper  course  of  vocal  training, 
the  faults  of  production  native  to  the  untrained 
voice  are  gradually  corrected.  Wrong  muscular 
tension  is  imperceptibly  relaxed.  Little  by  little 
the  student  acquires  facility  in  handling  the  voice. 
Coincident  with  this  progress  is  the  advance 
toward  the  correct  vocal  action.  The  transition 
from  the  natural  to  the  perfect  use  of  the  voice  is 
gradual  and  imperceptible.  There  is  no  stage  of 
progress  at  which  the  operations  of  the  voice 
radically  change  in  character.  At  no  time  does 
the  student  change  the  manner  of  managing  the 
voice.  Effects  difficult  at  first  gradually  become 
easier,  simply  as  the  result  of  practice.  This  is 
the  only  change  that  the  voice  undergoes  in 
training. 

One  influence,  and  only  one,  can  interfere  with 
this  normal  development  of  the  voice.  This  is 
the  involuntary  and  unconscious  stiffening  of  the 
throat.    In  the  normal  practice  of  singing  nothing 


286  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

is  involved  which  could  cause  the  throat  to  stiffen. 
True,  the  first  stages  of  study  are  usually  marked 
by  a  slight  degree  of  stiffness,  due  solely  to  the 
lack  of  practice  and  experience.  This  initial 
stiffness  does  not  tend  to  become  habitual;  it 
disappears  before  the  student  becomes  aware  of 
it,  and  leaves  no  permanent  trace  on  the  voice. 
That  is,  provided  mechanical  instruction  does  not 
intervene,  to  introduce  the  tendency  directly  to 
stiffen  the  throat. 

As  the  initial  stiffness  disappears,  and  the  vocal 
action  gradually  becomes  smooth  and  automatic, 
the  voice  begins  to  take  on  the  characteristics  of 
perfect  tone-production.  The  voice  rounds  out, 
the  tones  become  free  and  true,  and  in  perfect 
tune.  No  excessive  throat  tension  being  present, 
the  voice  conforms  to  the  correct  empirical  stand- 
ard of  tone-production.  It  gives  evidence  to  the 
ear  of  correct  support  and  of  open  throat.  The 
tones  issue  freely  from  the  mouth  and  convey  no 
impression  of  throat  or  nose. 

As  a  matter  of  experience  it  is  known  that 
vocal  students  generally  make  satisfactory  prog- 
ress in  the  first  few  months  of  study.  This  is 
perfectly  natural.    It  requires  several  months  for 


THE  TRUE  MEANING  OF  VOCAL  TRAINING        287 

the  normally  constituted  student  to  grasp  the  idea 
of  mechanical  vocal  management.  Gifted  with  a 
fine  voice,  the  natural  impulse  of  any  one  is  to 
sing.  By  singing  naturally  the  voice  is  bound  to 
improve. 

Just  so  soon  as  the  student  begins  to  under- 
stand the  meaning  of  attempted  mechanical  guid- 
ance of  the  voice,  the  evil  effects  of  throat  stiifness 
begin  to  be  manifest.  The  more  earnest  and 
intelligent  students  are  often  the  worst  sufferers 
from  throat  stiifness.  They  more  readily  grasp 
the  mechanical  doctrines  of  modern  methods  and 
apply  the  mechanical  idea  more  thoroughly. 

There  is  in  reality  no  problem  of  tone-produc- 
tion such  as  the  accepted  theory  of  Voice  Culture 
propounds.  The  voice  does  not  require  to  be 
taught  how  to  act.  Tone-production  was  never 
thought  to  involve  any  mechanical  problem  until 
the  attention  of  vocalists  was  turned  to  the 
mechanical  operations  of  the  voice.  This  dates, 
roughly  speaking,  from  about  1800.  Since  that 
time  the  whole  tendency  of  Voice  Culture  has 
been  mechanical.  Nowadays  the  entire  musical 
world  is  acquainted  with  the  idea  that  the  voice 
must  be  directly  guided ;  hardly  any  one  has  ever 


288  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

heard  this  belief  contradicted.  To  say  that  the 
voice  needs  no  guidance  other  than  the  ear  would 
seem  utterly  preposterous  to  the  average  lover  of 
singing.  It  is  even  highly  probable  that  this 
statement  would  not  be  understood.  Yet  there  is 
strong  evidence  that  the  old  Italian  masters  would 
have  had  equal  difficulty  in  grasping  the  idea  of 
mechanical  vocal  management.  How  long  it  will 
take  for  the  vocal  profession  to  be  persuaded  of 
the  error  of  the  mechanical  idea  only  the  future 
can  determine. 

Probably  the  most  important  fact  about  vocal 
training  is  the  following :  The  voice  is  benefited 
by  producing  beautiful  tones,  and  is  injured 
by  producing  harsh  sounds.  A  tone  of  perfect 
beauty  can  be  sung  only  when  the  vocal  organs 
are  free  from  unnecessary  tension.  The  nearer 
the  tones  approach  to  the  perfection  of  beauty, 
the  closer  does  the  voice  come  to  the  correct 
action.  Healthy  exercise  of  the  voice,  with  the 
throat  free  from  strain,  strengthens  and  develops 
the  throat  muscles.  Harsh  and  unmusical  sounds, 
produced  by  the  voice,  indicate  that  the  throat 
is  in  a  condition  of  injurious  tension.  Singing 
under  these  circumstances  strains  and  weakens 


THE  TRUE  MEANING  OF  VOCAL  TRAINING        289 

tlie  muscles  of  the  throat  and  injures  the  voice. 
The  harsher  the  tones  the  worse  they  are  for  the 
voice. 

Beauty  of  tone  is  the  only  criterion  of  the  cor- 
rect vocal  action.  By  listening  to  himself  the 
singer  may  know  whether  his  tone-production  is 
correct.  If  the  tones  are  beautiful  the  tone- 
production  cannot  be  wrong.  The  ear  must 
always  decide.  A  normally  constituted  ear  in- 
stinctively delights  in  hearing  beautiful  sounds. 
While  attentive  listening  renders  the  ear  more 
keen  and  discriminating,  no  vocal  student  of 
average  gifts  need  be  told  the  meaning  of  tonal 
beauty. 

Instinct  prompts  the  possessor  of  a  fine  natural 
voice  and  a  musical  ear  to  sing,  and  to  sing  beau- 
tiful tones.  No  normally  constituted  student  can 
take  pleasure  in  the  practice  of  mechanical  exer- 
cises. This  form  of  study  is  repugnant  to  the 
musical  sensibility.  Vocal  students  want  to  sing ; 
they  feel  instinctively  that  the  practice  of  me- 
chanical exercises  is  not  singing.  A  prominent 
exponent  of  mechanical  instruction  complains: 
''I  tell  them  to  take  breathing  exercises  three 
times  a  day— but  they  all  want  to  go  right  to 

19 


290  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

singing  songs.''  {Werner^ s  Magazine,  April, 
1899.)  These  students  are  perfectly  right.  They 
know  instinctively  that  the  voice  can  be  trained 
only  by  singing.  There  is  no  connection  between 
artistic  singing  and  the  practice  of  toneless 
breathing  exercises.  **Five  finger  drills''  and 
studies  in  broken  scales  of  the  types  generally 
used  are  also  utterly  unmusical.  Mechanical 
drills,  whether  toneless  or  vocal,  have  little 
effect   other   than   to   induce   throat   stiffness. 


CHAPTER   V 

IMITATION  THE  RATIONAL  BASIS  OF  VOICE  CULTURE 

It  is  generally  assumed  by  vocal  theorists  that 
the  voice  cannot  be  trained  by  imitation.  Browne 
and  Behnke  state  this  belief  definitely :  *  ^  Singing 
cannot  be  learned  exclusively  by  imitation." 
{Voice,  Song,  and  Speech.)  Having  ascertained 
the  futility  of  the  attempt  to  teach  singing 
mechanically,  it  is  now  in  order  to  determine  the 
truth  or  falsity  of  the  statement  that  the  exercise 
of  the  imitative  faculty  alone  does  not  suffice  for 
the  training  of  the  voice. 

In  the  first  place,  no  one  has  ever  thought  of 
questioning  the  existence  of  an  instinct  of  vocal 
imitation.  On  the  contrary,  this  instinct  is 
everywhere  recognized.  In  childhood  we  learn 
to  speak  our  mother  tongue  by  imitating  the 
speech  of  those  about  us.  **  Talking  proper  does 
not  set  in  till  the  instinct  to  imitate  sounds  ripens 
in  the  nervous  system."  {The  Principles  of 
Psychology^  Wm.  James,  New  York,  1890.) 

291 


292  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

Vocal  imitation  would  be  impossible  without 
the  ability  of  the  voice  to  produce  sounds  in 
obedience  to  the  commands  of  the  ear.  This 
ability  the  voice  normally  possesses;  spoken  lan- 
guage could  not  otherwise  exist.  The  voice  can 
imitate  a  wide  range  of  sounds.  If  the  perfect 
vocal  tone  can  be  shown  to  be  included  in  this 
range  of  sounds,  then  the  voice  can  be  trained  by 
imitation. 

Exceptional  powers  of  vocal  imitation  are  some- 
times developed.  Vaudeville  performers  are  by 
no  means  rare  who  can  imitate  the  tones  of  the 
oboe,  the  clarinet,  the  muted  trumpet,  and  several 
other  instruments.  Imitation  of  the  notes  and 
songs  of  birds  is  also  a  familiar  type  of  per- 
formance. This  peculiar  gift  of  imitation  results 
in  each  case  from  some  special  structure  of  the 
vocal  organs.  One  performer  can  imitate  the 
reed  instruments,  another  the  lighter  brasses,  and 
so  on.  Just  what  peculiar  formation  of  the  vocal 
organs  is  required  for  this  type  of  imitative 
ability  need  not  be  inquired  here.  All  that  need 
be  noted  is,  that  the  vocal  organs  must  be  so 
constructed  as  to  be  able  to  produce  the  particular 
quality  of  sound.     Given  this  natural  ability  on 


IMITATION    THE    EATIONAL    BASIS  293 

the  part  of  the  vocal  organs,  the  power  to  produce 
the  tone  quality  is  developed  by  repeated  attempts 
at  imitation.  The  possessor  of  the  natural  gift 
perfects  this  gift  by  practice.  For  practice  in 
the  imitation  of  sounds  to  be  effective  it  is  neces- 
sary that  the  ear  be  well  acquainted  with  the  tone 
quality  to  be  reproduced.  In  addition,  the  prac- 
tice must  be  guided  by  the  performer  listening 
closely  to  the  sounds  produced  by  the  vocal 
organs,  and  constantly  comparing  these  sounds 
to  the  tones  of  the  instrument  chosen  for  imitation. 

This  vocal  imitation  of  instruments  is  not  a 
normal  ability ;  the  tones  of  the  oboe  and  trumpet 
do  not  lie  within  the  range  of  qualities  native  to 
the  normal  voice.  But  the  quality  of  the  perfect 
vocal  tone  is  unquestionably  within  the  range  of 
every  voice  so  constituted  as  to  be  capable  of 
artistic  singing.  A  fine  natural  voice  normally 
produces  beautiful  tones.  It  is  only  with  this 
type  of  voice  that  Voice  Culture  is  concerned. 
Such  a  voice  must  be  capable  of  producing  the 
perfect  vocal  tone.  Can  it  learn  to  produce  this 
quality  of  tone  by  imitation? 

It  cannot  be  questioned  that  the  faulty  tones  of 
one  voice  can  readily  be  imitated  by  another  voice. 


294  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

Any  one  endowed  with  normal  powers  of  speech, 
can  imitate  a  markedly  nasal  speaking  voice. 
This  is  equally  true  of  a  nasal  tone  in  singing, 
and  of  a  strongly  throaty  tone  as  well.  The  more 
marked  the  fault  of  production  the  more  readily 
it  is  heard  and  the  more  easily  it  can  be  imitated. 
Let  us  imagine  the  case  of  a  vocal  teacher  who 
undertakes  to  teach  a  gifted  pupil  by  having  the 
pupil  imitate  tones  of  faulty  production,  and 
gradually  correcting  the  faults  in  the  tones  sung 
as  a  model  for  the  pupil.  The  master  is  of  course 
understood  to  have  perfect  command  of  his  own 
voice.  Suppose  this  master  to  begin  the  course 
of  instruction  by  singing  for  the  pupil  tones  of 
exaggerated  throaty  quality,  and  bidding  the 
pupil  to  imitate  these  tones.  Naturally,  the  pupil 
would  have  no  difficulty  in  doing  so.  At  the  next 
lesson  the  master  would  very  slightly  improve  the 
quality  of  the  tones  sung  as  a  model  for  the 
pupiPs  imitation.  The  student  would  listen  to 
these  tones  and  model  his  daily  practice  accord- 
ingly. Just  so  soon  as  the  student  had  succeeded 
in  correctly  reproducing  this  slightly  less  throaty 
tone  the  master  would  again  set  a  slightly  im- 
proved model. 


IMITATION    THE    RATIONAL    BASIS  295 

With  each  successive  step  the  master  might 
eliminate,  one  by  one,  the  faults  of  his  own  tone- 
production.  Following  the  same  course,  the  pupil 
would  also  gradually  approach  a  correct  model  of 
tone.  Finally,  all  the  faults  of  tone-production 
having  been  corrected,  both  of  master  and  pupil, 
the  latter  would  be  called  upon  to  imitate  perfect 
vocal  tones.  It  would  necessarily  follow  either 
that  the  student  would  successfully  imitate  the 
master's  perfect  tones  or  that  at  some  point  in 
this  progress  the  student's  imitative  faculty 
would  be  found  lacking. 

Could  any  point  be  located  at  which  the  student 
would  be  unable  to  imitate  the  teacher's  voice? 
This  could  certainly  not  be  in  the  early  stages  of 
the  course.  Any  one  can  imitate  a  very  bad 
throaty  or  nasal  tone.  This  being  done,  the  imi- 
tation of  a  slightly  less  faulty  tone  would  also 
present  no  difficulty.  A  second  improvement  in 
the  master's  model  tone  would  again  be  readily 
imitated,  and  so  on,  with  each  succeeding  cor- 
rection of  the  faults  of  production.  When  the 
last  trace  of  faulty  production  in  the  student's 
voice  had  been  eliminated,  he  would  be  singing 
perfect  tones.    It  is  utterly  impossible  to  define  a 


296  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

point  in  this  progress  at  which  the  pupil  would 
be  unable  to  imitate  the  teacher's  voice.  If  a 
bad  fault  of  production  can  be  imitated,  so  can  a 
comparatively  slight  fault.  Further,  if  the  pupil 
can  correct  his  pronounced  faulty  production  by 
imitating  a  tone  not  quite  so  faulty,  so  can  he 
improve  upon  this  tone  by  imitating  a  still  better 
model  of  production.  This  process  of  gradual 
improvement  by  imitation  must  be  capable  of 
continuation  imtil  the  last  fault  is  eliminated. 
No  limit  can  be  set  to  the  ability  of  the  voice  to 
improve  its  manner  of  tone-production  by  imita- 
tion.  It  must  therefore  be  concluded  that  the 
{perfect  vocal  action  can  be  acquired  by  imitation.\ 
In  practical  Voice  Culture,  learning  to  sing  by 
imitation  means  simply  the  cultivation  of  the 
sense  of  hearing  and  the  guidance  of  the  voice  by 
the  ear.  In  other  words,  those  vocal  theorists 
who  insist  upon  ear  training  commit  themselves 
to  the  theory  of  imitative  Voice  Culture.  What 
necessity  is  there  of  mechanical  management  of 
the  vocal  organs  if  the  voice  is  to  be  guided  by 
the  ear?  Even  if  mechanical  management  of  the 
voice  were  possible  it  would  be  entirely  super- 


IMITATION    THE    EATIONAL    BASIS  297 

fluous.  The  voice  needs  no  other  guidance  than 
the  singer's  sense  of  hearing. 

Here  another  striking  question  is  encountered: 
Why  should  the  vocal  organs  be  thought  to  be 
unable  to  adjust  themselves  for  the  tone  quality 
demanded  by  the  ear  any  more  than  for  the  pitch? 
No  vocal  theorist  has  ever  thought  to  formulate 
rules  for  securing  the  tension  of  the  vocal  cords 
necessary  for  the  desired  pitch.  This  is  always 
left  to  instinctive  processes.  No  one  would  ever 
undertake  to  question  the  voice's  ability  to  sing 
by  imitation  a  note  of  any  particular  pitch. 
What  valid  reason  can  be  given  for  denying  the 
corresponding  ability  regarding  tone  quality? 

Only  one  answer  can  be  made  to  this  question. 
The  whole  matter  of  mechanical  vocal  manage- 
ment rests  on  pure  assumption.  No  scientific 
proof  has  ever  been  sought  for  the  belief  that  the 
voice  requires  mechanical  management.  This 
necessity  is  always  assumed,  but  the  assumption 
is  utterly  illogical.  The  vocal  organs  adjust 
themselves  for  the  imitation  of  tone  quality  by 
exactly  the  same  psychological  processes  as  for 
the  imitation  of  pitch.     Neither  pitch  nor  tone 


298  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

quality  can  be  regulated  in  any  other  way  than  by 
the  guidance  of  the  ear. 

Imitation  furnishes  the  only  means  of  acquir- 
ing the  correct  vocal  action.  Several  authori- 
ties on  the  voice  admit  the  value  of  imitation, 
even  though  they  also  make  much  of  the  mechan- 
ical doctrines  of  modern  methods.  Sieber  gives 
imitation  as  the  best  means  of  curing  faults  of 
production.  * '  The  best  means  to  free  the  student 
of  the  three  forms  of  faulty  tone  just  described  is 
possessed  by  that  teacher  who  is  able  to  imitate 
these  faults  with  his  own  voice.''  {Vollstdn- 
diges  Lehrhuch  der  Gesangskunst,  Ferd.  Sieber, 
1858.)  Dr.  Mills  goes  further  and  advocates  the 
imitating  of  finished  singers  for  the  purpose  of 
acquiring  the  correct  vocal  action.  **The  author 
would  recommend  all  students  who  have  begun  a 
serious  practical  study  of  the  registers  to  hear,  if 
possible,  some  singer  of  eminence  who  observes 
register  formation  strictly.''  {Voice  Production 
in  Singing  and  Speaking,  Phila.,  1906.)  Kofler 
even  declares  that  imitation  is  an  indispensable 
element  of  instruction.  '*It  is  just  as  difficult 
or  impossible  to  learn  to  sing  good  tones  without 
hearing  the  teacher's  pure  model  tone  as  it  is 


IMITATION    THE    RATIONAL    BASIS  299 

difficult  or  impossible  to  learn  to  speak  without 
hearing."  (The  Art  of  Breathing,  Leo  Kofler, 
1889.) 

If  the  correct  vocal  action  is  to  be  acquired 
by  imitation,  of  what  use  are  the  mechanical  doc- 
trines of  vocal  management!  Kofler  seeks  to 
combine  these  two  forms  of  instruction.  * '  Physi- 
ological theories  must  go  hand  in  hand  with  the 
musical  ear  or  the  law  of  imitation.''  Scientifi- 
cally considered,  this  attempted  combination  of 
mechanical  vocal  training  and  instruction  by  imi- 
tation is  an  utter  absurdity.  There  is  no  possi- 
bility of  connection  between  vocal  imitation  and 
mechanical  vocal  management.  Eeliance  on  the 
imitative  faculty  involves  the  utter  rejection  of 
the  mechanical  idea.  Compromise,  or  combina- 
tion of  the  two,  is  a  logical  absurdity,  limitation 
and  attempted  mechanical  management  of  the 
voice  are  absolutely  incompatible.!  Any  attempt 
consciously  to  direct  the  muscular  workings  of  the 
vocal  organs  is  an  interference  with  the  normal 
action  of  the  voice.  So  soon  as  conscious  me- 
chanical management  of  the  voice  is  attempted 
throat  stiffness  results,  and  the  voice  is  hampered 
in  the  exercise  of  its  instinctive  faculty  of  imita- 


300  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

tion.  It  is  impossible  to  acquire  the  correct 
vocal  action  by  the  application  of  mechanical 
rules,  because  a  consistent  following  of  me- 
chanical doctrines  utterly  prevents  the  vocal 
organs  from  operating  normally,  even  though  the 
student  try  at  the  same  time  to  guide  the  voice 
by  the  sense  of  hearing. 

A  close  scrutiny  of  the  practices  of  modern 
vocal  teachers  reveals  convincing  evidence  that 
all  their  successes  are  due  to  a  reliance,  conscious 
or  unconscious,  on  the  imitative  faculty.  Teach- 
ers are  as  a  rule  not  aware  of  the  appeal  to  the 
instinct  of  imitation;  neither  indeed  do  the 
students  usually  pay  much  attention  to  this  fea- 
ture of  their  lessons.  Much  of  modern  vocal 
instruction  is  dual  in  character.  When,  for 
example,  the  teacher  wishes  to  correct  a  marked 
fault  in  the  pupil's  tone-production,  he  adopts 
this  dual  mode  of  imparting  his  ideas.  First,  he 
explains  to  the  pupil  the  (supposed)  mechanical 
operation;  second,  he  imitates  the  pupil's  faulty 
production  and  then  sings  a  correct  tone  to  show 
how  it  should  be  produced. 

For  the  teacher  to  sing  the  correct  tone  takes 
but  a  few  seconds  and  requires  almost  no  thought. 


IMITATION    THE    EATIONAL    BASIS  801 

The  mechanical  explanation,  on  the  other  hand, 
calls  for  much  more  of  time,  and  of  voluntary 
attention,  from  both  master  and  student.  It  thus 
follows  that  they  both  look  upon  the  mechanical 
rule  as  the  important  matter,  and  consider  the 
teacher's  perfect  tone  as  merely  an  illustration 
of  the  rule. 

In  most  cases  the  student  strives  to  apply  the 
mechanical  rule,  particularly  in  home  practice 
between  lessons.  Under  these  circumstances  the 
voice  does  not  respond  satisfactorily.  But  it  often 
happens  that  the  student  pays  little  attention  to 
the  mechanical  rule,  and  simply  imitates  the 
teacher's  voice.  There  being  then  nothing  to 
interfere,  the  student's  voice  naturally  responds. 
The  master  ascribes  this  satisfactory  result  to  the 
application  of  the  mechanical  doctrine,  while  in 
fact  the  result  is  due  to  the  student's  complete 
ignoring  of  the  doctrine. 

Vocal  imitation  is  often  completely  unconscious. 
(Individuals  vary  greatly  as  regards  the  tendency 
to  unconscious  imitation]  Of  two  English  lads 
coming  to  America  at  the  age  of  fifteen,  one  may 
be  found  ten  years  later  to  have  entirely  lost  the 
English  accent,  the  other  may  retain  it  all  his  life. 


302  THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   SINGING 

This  difference  in  individual  traits  has  much  to 
do  with  determining  to  what  extent  the  vocal 
student  may  unconsciously  imitate  correct  models 
of  singing.  Other  characteristics  are  also  in- 
fluential in  this  regard.  Some  students  so  dislike 
to  sing  mechanically  that  they  neglect,  in  their 
home  study,  to  practise  their  exercises  in  the 
prescribed  way.  This  is  often  due  to  an  instinc- 
tive abhorrence  of  harsh  sounds.  Other  students 
are  so  gifted  with  the  true  feeling  for  vocal 
melody  that  mechanical  instruction  makes  no 
impression  on  them. 

As  a  general  rule,  the  reliance  on  the  imitative 
faculty  in  modern  vocal  instruction  is  entirely 
unconscious  on  the  part  of  both  master  and  pupil. 
Adherence  to  the  mechanical  idea  excludes  from 
the  student's  mind  all  thought  of  any  means  of 
vocal  guidance  other  than  mechanical.  This  is 
true,  even  in  the  most  common  form  of  instruc- 
tion, imitation  and  mechanical  doctriae  combined. 
As  regards  the  master,  his  only  conscious  exercise 
of  the  imitative  faculty  is  the  reproduction  of  the 
pupil's  faulty  tones.  He  seldom  thinks  of  telling 
the  pupil  to  imitate  his  own  correctly  produced 
tones. 


IMITATION    THE    BATIONAL    BASIS  303 

/Imitation  supplies  the  only  practical  means  for 
training  voices./  All  the  elements  of  Voice  Cul- 
ture are  combined  in  one  simple  process,  when  the 
master  sings  correctly,  and  the  student  imitates 
the  master.  This  exercise  of  the  imitative  faculty 
may  be  made  to  suffice  for  both  the  training  of  the 
ear  and  the  cultivation  of  the  voice.  On  practi- 
cal, as  well  as  on  scientific  grounds,  imitation  is 
the  only  rational  basis  of  a  method  of  Voice 
Culture. 


CHAPTEE   VI 

THE  OLD  ITALIAN  METHOD 

To  the  believer  in  the  necessity  of  direct  me- 
chanical management  of  the  voice,  the  old  Italian 
method  is  a  complete  mystery.  Modern  vocal 
theorists  are  at  a  loss  to  account  for  the  success 
of  the  old  masters  in  training  voices.  Many 
authorities  go  so  far  as  to  assert  that  these 
masters  possessed  some  insight  into  the  opera- 
tions of  the  vocal  organs,  along  the  lines  of 
accepted  Vocal  Science.  In  their  introductory 
chapter,  **A  Plea  for  Vocal  Physiology,"  Browne 
and  Behnke  attempt  to  prove  that  the  old  masters 
studied  the  anatomy  of  the  vocal  organs.  But 
even  if  this  could  be  proved,  that  would  not  solve 
the  mystery  of  the  old  method.  Modern  teachers 
are  certainly  as  well  acquainted  with  the  mechan- 
ical features  of  tone-production  as  the  old  masters 
were.  Yet,  judged  by  their  results,  modem 
methods  are  distinctly  inferior  to  the  old  Italian 
method. 

304 


THE    OLD    ITALIAN   METHOD  305 

There  is  absolutely  no  ground  for  the  belief 
that  the  old  masters  owed  their  success  to  a 
knowledge  of  vocal  physiology.  This  idea  of 
ascribing  scientific  knowledge  to  the  early  teach- 
ers results  only  from  erroneous  belief  that  no 
other  means  of  training  the  voice  is  possible.  It 
may  be  set  down  as  absolutely  certain  that  the 
old  method  was  not  based  on  the  principles  of  the 
accepted  Vocal  Science. 

Yet  the  old  masters  undoubtedly  possessed 
some  means  of  training  voices.  They  must  have 
known  something  about  the  voice.  Their  knowl- 
edge, whatever  it  was,  is  commonly  believed  to 
have  been  lost.  Many  modern  teachers  claim  to 
have  inherited  the  old  method.  Still  these  teach- 
ers have  nothing  to  offer  beyond  the  well-known 
doctrines  of  breathing,  breath-control,  forward 
tone,  etc.  How  these  doctrines  might  have  been 
applied  in  practical  instruction  nobody  is  able  to 
tell.  Little  attention  need  be  paid  to  the  claim 
of  any  modern  teacher  to  possess  the  old  Italian 
method  of  training  voices. 

So  early  as  1847  Garcia  remarked  the  dearth 
of  information  of  a  literary  character  bearing  on 
the  old  method.     '*  Unfortunately  this  epoch  has 

20 


306  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

left  US  only  vague  and  incomplete  documents 
bearing  on  its  traditions.  Of  the  methods  then 
followed  we  have  only  an  approximate  and  con- 
fused idea."  {Ecole  de  Garcia,  Mayence,  1847.) 
Although  familiar  with  the  works  of  Tosi  and 
Mancini,  Garcia  was  unable  to  find  in  their  writ- 
ings any  hint  of  the  means  used  for  imparting  the 
correct  vocal  action.  This  same  remark  is  made 
by  many  other  investigators. 

Yet  a  reconstruction  of  the  old  method  is  not 
necessarily  a  matter  of  conjecture.  Once  the 
possibility  of  training  the  voice  by  imitation  is 
established,  the  old  Italian  method  is  easily  un- 
derstood. Speaking  of  the  glorious  past  of  the 
art  of  Voice  Culture,  Dr.  Mills  says:  *'We  have 
advanced,  musically,  in  many  respects  since  the 
days  of  the  old  Italian  masters,  but  just  as  we 
must  turn  to  the  Greeks  to  learn  what  constitutes 
the  highest  and  best  in  sculpture,  so  must  we  sit  at 
the  feet  of  these  old  masters.  Consciously  or 
unconsciously  they  taught  on  sound  physiological 
principles."  (Voice  Production  in  Singing  and 
Speaking.) 

Dr.  Mills'  statement  might  be  more  complete 
if  it  were  made  to  read,  **  consciously  or  uncon- 


THE    OLD    ITALIAN   METHOD/  307 

sciously  they  taught  on  sound  physiological  and 
psychological  principles/'  Vocal  instruction  on 
sound  principles  is  simply  the  training  of  the 
voice  by  imitation.  With  the  scientific  basis  of 
their  method — the  laws  of  physiological  psy- 
chology— the  old  masters  were  utterly  unac- 
quainted. Vocal  imitation  is  purely  instinctive. 
Probably  the  old  masters  could  not  even  have 
formulated  a  concise  statement  of  their  reasons 
for  relying  on  the  imitative  faculty. 

Garcia 's  complaint  of  the  dearth  of  literary 
information  regarding  the  old  method  is  by  no 
means  justified.  Naturally  there  is  no  record  of 
any  means  for  imparting  a  direct  mechanical 
management  of  the  voice.  Nothing  of  the  kind 
was  thought  of.  But  as  a  description  of  a  course 
in  voice  training  by  imitation,  the  works  of  Tosi 
and  Mancini  leave  little  to  be  desired. 

Both  Tosi  and  Mancini  devote  by  far  the 
greater  portion  of  their  books  to  describing  the 
ornaments  and  embellishments  of  vocal  music. 
They  take  up  the  singer's  education  from  the 
beginning  and  seem  to  assume,  as  a  matter  of 
course,  that  the  training  in  the  art  of  music  is 
coincident,  if  not  indeed  identical,  with  the  cul- 


308  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

tivation  of  the  voice.  But  they  do  not  by  any 
means  neglect  the  subject  of  tone-production. 
Most  modern  readers  of  these  early  writers  over- 
look the  simple  directions  given  for  securing  a 
proper  use  of  the  voice.  This  is,  of  course,  due 
to  the  current  belief  that  directions  for  vocal 
management  must  of  necessity  deal  with  mechan- 
ical and  muscular  operations.  Finding  nothing 
of  this  kind  in  Tosi  and  Mancini,  the  modern 
investigator  concludes  that  these  writers  for  some 
reason  failed  to  record  the  means  used  for  im- 
parting the  correct  vocal  action.  All  that  can  be 
found  by  such  an  investigator  in  the  works  of 
Tosi  and  Mancini  is  an  outline  of  an  elaborate 
system  of  coloratura  singing.  Much  more  is  seen 
when  the  meaning  of  imitative  Voice  Culture  is 
understood. 

Let  us  consider  first  the  ** Observations''  of 
Tosi.  This  writer  devotes  his  first  few  pages  to 
some  remarks  on  the  art  of  singing,  and  to  a 
general  consideration  of  the  practices  of  Voice 
Culture.  Almost  at  the  outset  we  meet  this  strik- 
ing statement:  ^^It  would  be  needless  to  say  that 
verbal  instruction  would  be  of  no  use  to  singers 
any  farther   than   to   prevent    'em   falling  into 


THE    OLD    ITALIAN   METHOD  309 

errors,  and  that  it  is  practice  alone  can  set  them 
right/'     That  is  certainly  a  sound  principle. 

Consider  also  this  passage.  **The  faults  in 
singing  insinuate  themselves  so  easily  into  the 
minds  of  young  beginners,  and  there  are  such 
difficulties  in  correcting  them,  when  grown  into  an 
habit,  that  it  were  to  be  wished  the  ablest  singers 
would  undertake  the  task  of  teaching,  they  best 
knowing  how  to  conduct  the  scholar  from  the  first 
elements  to  perfection.  But  there  being  none 
(if  I  mistake  not)  but  who  abhor  the  thoughts  of 
it,  we  must  reserve  them  for  those  delicacies  of 
the  art,  which  enchant  the  soul.  Therefore  the 
first  rudiments  necessarily  fall  to  a  master  of  a 
lower  rank,  till  the  scholar  can  sing  his  part  at 
sight;  whom  one  would  at  least  wish  to  be  an 
honest  man,  diligent  and  experienced,  without  the 
defects  of  singing  through  the  nose,  or  in  the 
throat,  and  that  he  have  a  command  of  voice,  some 
glimpse  of  a  good  taste,  able  to  make  himself 
understood  with  ease,  a  perfect  intonation,  and  a 
patience  to  endure  the  fatigue  of  a  most  tiresome 
employment. ' ' 

This  brings  out  three  striking  facts.  First, 
that  the  student  learned  to  use  his  voice  by  imi- 


310  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

tating  the  voice  of  the  master.  Second,  that  the 
initial  work  of  *^ voice  placing"  was  merely  an 
incident  in  the  training  in  sight  singing  and  the 
rudiments  of  music.  Third,  that  ^' voice  placing" 
was  considered  of  too  little  importance  to  claim 
the  attention  of  masters  of  the  first  rank.  This 
feature  of  instruction,  so  important  now  as  to 
overshadow  all  else,  was  at  that  time  left  to  mas- 
ters of  a  lower  rank. 

This  passage  is  followed  by  a  short  discourse 
on  the  rudiments  of  Sol  Fa,  a  subject  of  only 
academic  interest  to  the  modern  student.  We  are 
so  thoroughly  accustomed  nowadays  to  the  dia- 
tonic scale  that  it  is  almost  impossible  for  us  to 
understand  the  old  system  of  Muance  or  Solmisa- 
tion.  Suffice  it  to  say  that  only  four  keys  were 
known,  and  that  each  note  was  called  by  its  full 
Sol-Fa  name.  Thus  D  was  called  D-la-sol-re,  C 
was  C-sol-fa-ut,  etc.  In  studying  sight  singing, 
the  student  pronounced  the  full  name  of  each  note 
in  every  exercise.  Instruction  in  singing  began 
with  this  study  of  sight  reading.  In  the  course 
of  this  practice  the  student  somehow  learned  to 
produce  his  voice  correctly. 

Tosi  does  not  leave  us  in  doubt  what  was  to  be 


THE    OLD    ITALIAN   METHOD  311 

done  in  order  to  lead  the  pupil  to  adopt  a  correct 
manner  of  tone-production.  **Let  the  master  do 
his  utmost  to  make  the  scholar  hit  and  sound  the 
notes  perfectly  in  tune  in  Sol-Fa-ing  ,  .  .  Let 
the  master  attend  with  great  care  to  the  voice  of 
the  scholar,  which  should  always  come  forth  neat 
and  clear,  without  passing  through  the  nose  or 
being  choaked  in  the  throat."  To  sing  in  tune 
and  to  produce  tones  of  good  quality, — this 
summed  up  for  To  si  the  whole  matter  of  tone- 
production. 

Many  teachers  in  the  old  days  composed  Sol-Fa 
exercises  and  vocalises  for  their  own  use.  Tosi 
did  not  think  this  indispensable.  But  he  points 
out  the  need  of  the  teacher  having  an  extensive 
repertoire  of  graded  exercises  and  vocalises.  To 
his  mind  these  should  always  be  melodious  and 
singable.  *^If  the  master  does  not  understand 
composition  let  him  provide  himself  with  good 
examples  of  Sol-Fa-ing  in  divers  stiles,  which 
insensibly  lead  from  the  most  easy  to  the  most 
difficult,  according  as  he  finds  the  scholar  im- 
proves; with  this  caution,  that  however  difficult, 
they  may  be  always  natural  and  agreeable,  to 
induce  the  scholar  to  study  with  pleasure.'* 


312  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

How  many  months  of  study  were  supposed  to 
be  required  for  this  preliminary  course  we  have 
no  means  of  judging  from  Tosi's  work.  At  any 
rate  the  combining  of  the  registers  was  accom- 
plished during  this  time.  Tosi's  description  of 
the  registers  is  very  concise.  ^^Voce  di  Petto  is 
a  full  voice  which  comes  from  the  breast  by 
strength,  and  is  the  most  sonorous  and  expressive. 
Voce  di  Testa  comes  more  from  the  throat  than 
from  the  breast,  and  is  capable  of  more  volubility. 
Falsetto  is  a  feigned  voice  which  is  formed  en- 
tirely in  the  throat,  has  more  volubility  than  any, 
but  of  no  substance.''  He  speaks  of  the  necessity 
of  uniting  the  registers,  but  gives  no  directions 
how  this  is  to  be  accomplished.  Evidently  this 
seemed  to  him  to  present  no  difficulty  whatever. 

In  this  early  period  of  instruction  the  pupil 
was  exercised  in  both  portamento  and  messa  di 
voce,  **Let  him  learn  the  manner  to  glide  with 
the  vowels,  and  to  drag  the  voice  gently  from  the 
high  to  the  lower  note  ...  In  the  same  lessons 
let  him  teach  the  art  to  put  forth  the  voice,  which 
consists  in  letting  it  swell  by  degrees  from  the 
softest  Piano  to  the  loudest  Forte,  and  from  thence 
with  the  same  art  return  from  the  Forte  to  the 


THE    OLD    ITALIAN    METHOD  313 

Piano.    A  beautiful  Messa  di  Voce  can  never  fail 
of  having  an  excellent  effect. ' ' 

Only  the  first  chapter  of  Tosi's  book  is  devoted 
to  this  initial  study.  That  the  student  was  ex- 
pected to  make  steady  progress  as  a  result  of 
this  study  is  evident  from  the  closing  sentence  of 
this  chapter.  '^The  scholar  having  now  made 
some  remarkable  progress,  the  instructor  may 
acquaint  him  with  the  first  embellishments  of  the 
art,  which  are  the  Appoggiaturas,  and  apply  them 
to  the  vowels."  The  remainder  of  the  work  is 
devoted  almost  entirely  to  the  embellishments  of 
singing.  Here  and  there  an  interesting  passage 
is  found.  ^*  After  the  scholar  has  made  himself 
perfect  in  the  Shake  and  the  Divisions,  the  master 
should  let  him  read  and  pronounce  the  words." 
(Shake  was  the  old  name  for  trill,  and  division 
for  run.)  Again,  *^I  return  to  the  master  only 
to  put  him  in  mind  that  his  duty  is  to  teach 
musick;  and  if  the  scholar,  before  he  gets  out  of 
his  hands,  does  not  sing  readily  and  at  sight,  the 
innocent  is  injured  without  remedy  from  the 
guilty."  This  injunction  might  well  be  taken  to 
heart  by  the  modern  teacher.  Good  sight  readers 
are  rare  nowadays,  outside  of  chorus  choirs. 


314  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

Mancini  begins  his  outline  of  the  course  of 
instruction  in  singing  with  this  striking  sentence : 
*^ Nothing  is  more  insufferable  and  more  inex- 
cusable in  a  musician  than  wrong  intonation; 
singing  in  the  throat  or  in  the  nose  will  certainly 
be  tolerated  rather  than  singing  out  of  tune." 
This  is  followed  by  the  advice  to  the  teacher  to 
ascertain  beyond  a  doubt  that  a  prospective  pupil 
is  endowed  with  a  true  musical  ear.  This  being 
done  the  pupil  is  to  begin  his  studies  by  sol-fa-ing 
the  scales.  *^  Having  determined  the  disposition 
and  capacity  of  the  student  with  respect  to  in- 
tonation, and  finding  him  able  and  disposed  to 
succeed,  let  him  fortify  himself  in  correct  intona- 
tion by  sol-fa-ing  the  scale,  ascending  and  descend- 
ing. This  must  be  executed  with  scrupulous 
attention  in  order  that  the  notes  may  be  perfectly 
intoned. ' ' 

In  this  practice  the  quality  of  the  tone  is  of  the 
highest  importance.  *^The  utmost  care  is  neces- 
sary with  the  student  to  render  him  able  to 
manage  this  portion  of  his  voice  with  the  proper 
sweetness  and  proportion."  Mancini  takes  it  for 
granted  that  the  student  will  progress  steadily  on 
account    of    this   practice.     **When   the    teacher 


THE    OLD    ITALIAN    METHOD  315 

observes  that  the  pupil  is  sufficiently  free  in 
delivering  the  voice,  in  intonation,  and  in  naming 
the  notes,  let  him  waste  no  time,  but  have  the  pupil 
vocalize  without  delay." 

Eegarding  the  registers,  Mancini  disagrees  with 
Tosi  and  names  only  two.  ** Voices  ordinarily 
divide  themselves  into  two  registers  which  are 
called,  one  of  the  chest,  the  other  of  the  head,  or 
falsetto.''  His  method  was  to  exercise  the  voice 
at  first  in  the  chest  register,  and  then  gradually 
to  extend  the  compass  of  the  voice  upward. 
^' Every  student  can  for  himself  with  perfect  ease 
recognize  the  difference  between  these  two  sepa- 
rate registers.  It  will  suffice  therefore  to  com- 
mence by  singing  the  scale,  for  example,  if  a 
soprano,  from  G  to  d;^  let  him  take  care  that 
these  five  notes  are  sonorous,  and  say  them  with 
force  and  clearness,  and  without  effort."  For 
uniting  the  registers,  ^^the  most  certain  means  is 
to  hold  back  the  tones  of  the  chest  and  to  sing  the 
transition  notes  in  the  head  register,  increasing 
the  power  little  by  little." 

Mancini  devotes  a  few  pages  to  a  description 
of  the  vocal  organs.     This  fact  is  cited  by  several 

*  Mancini  of  course  uses  the  Sol-Fa  names  of  these  notes. 


316  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

modern  theorists  in  support  of  their  statement 
that  the  old  masters  based  their  methods  on 
mechanical  principles.  In  the  following  chapter 
this  topic  of  Mancini's  treatise  will  be  considered. 
Probably  the  best  summary  of  the  old  Italian 
method  offered  by  any  modern  teacher  is  con- 
tained in  a  little  booklet  by  J.  Frank  Botume, 
entitled  Modern  Singing  Methods.  (Boston,  1885. 
The  citations  are  from  the  fourth  edition,  1896.) 
Speaking  of  the  meaning  of  the  word  method,  as 
applied  to  a  system  of  rules  for  acquiring  the 
correct  vocal  action,  this  writer  says:  ^^If  a 
teacher  says,  *that  tone  is  harsh,  sing  more 
sweetly, '  he  has  given  no  method  to  his  pupil.  He 
has  asked  the  scholar  to  change  his  tone,  but  has 
not  shown  him  how  to  do  it.  If,  on  the  other 
hand,  he  directs  the  pupil  to  keep  back  the  pres- 
sure of  the  breath,  or  to  change  the  location  of 
the  tone;  if  he  instructs  him  in  regard  to  the 
correct  use  of  his  vocal  cords,  or  speaks  of  the 
position  of  his  tongue,  of  his  diaphragm,  of  his 
mouth,  etc.,  he  gives  him  method.  The  Italian 
teachers  of  the  early  period  of  this  art  had  so 
little  method  that  it  can  hardly  be  said  to  have 
existed  with  them.    In  fact,  the  word  method,  as 


THE    OLD    ITALIAN   METHOD  317 

now  used,  is  of  comparatively  modern  origin.  The 
founders  of  the  art  of  singing  aimed  at  results 
directly ;  the  manner  of  using  the  vocal  apparatus 
for  the  purpose  of  reaching  these  results  troubled 
them  comparatively  little.  The  old  Italian  teacher 
took  the  voice  as  he  found  it.  He  began  with  the 
simplest  and  easiest  work,  and  trusted  to  patient 
and  long-continued  exercise  to  develop  the  vocal 
apparatus.  In  all  this  there  is  no  method  as  we 
understand  the  term.  The  result  is  aimed  at 
directly.  The  manner  of  getting  it  is  not  shown. 
There  is  no  conscious  control  of  the  vocal  appa- 
ratus for  the  purpose  of  effecting  a  certain 
result.'' 

This  sums  up  beautifully  the  external  aspects 
of  the  old  Italian  method,  and  of  modern  methods 
as  well.  It  points  out  clearly  the  difference  be- 
tween the  old  and  the  modern  system.  But  it  is 
a  mistake  to  say  that  the  old  masters  followed  no 
systematized  plan  of  instruction.  Tosi's  advice, 
already  quoted  (^^Let  the  master  provide  himself 
with  examples  of  Sol-fa,  leading  insensibly  from 
the  easy  to  the  difficult,''  etc.),  shows  a  thorough 
grasp  of  the  meaning  of  methodical  instruction. 
Once  the  real  nature  of  vocal  training  is  under- 


318  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

stood,  both  Tosi  and  Mancini  are  seen  to  describe 
a  well  worked  out  system  of  Voice  Culture.  The 
only  important  difference  between  the  old  and  the 
new  system  is  this:  one  relied  on  instinctive  and 
imitative  processes  for  imparting  the  correct  vocal 
action,  the  other  seeks  to  accomplish  the  same 
result  through  the  mechanical  management  of  the 
vocal  organs.  In  this  regard  the  advantage  is  all 
on  the  side  of  the  old  Italian  method. 

One  question  regarding  the  old  method  remains 
to  be  answered.  This  has  to  do  with  the  use  of 
the  empirical  precepts  in  practical  instruction. 
So  far  as  the  written  record  goes  we  have  no 
means  of  answering  this  question.  Neither  Tosi 
nor  Mancini  mentions  the  old  precepts  in  any  way. 
The  answer  can  therefore  be  only  conjectural. 
We  may  at  once  dismiss  the  idea  that  the  old  mas- 
ters used  the  precepts  in  the  currently  accepted 
manner  as  rules  for  the  mechanical  management 
of  the  voice.  This  application  of  the  empirical 
precepts  followed  upon  the  acceptance  of  the  idea 
of  mechanical  voice  culture. 

A  fine  description  of  perfect  singmg,  considered 
empirically,  was  found  to  be  embodied  in  the 
traditional  precepts.     Such  a  description  of  cor- 


THE    OLD    ITALIAN    METHOD  319 

rectly  produced  tone  might  be  of  great  value  in 
the  training  of  the  ear.  The  sense  of  hearing  is 
developed  by  listening;  and  attentive  listening 
is  rendered  doubly  effective  in  the  singer's  edu- 
cation by  the  attention  being  consciously  di- 
rected to  particular  characteristics  of  the  sounds 
observed. 

A  highly  important  aspect  of  ear  training  in 
Voice  Culture  is  the  acquainting  the  student  with 
the  highest  standards  of  singing.  The  student 
derives  a  double  advantage  from  listening  to 
artistic  singing  when  he  knows  what  to  listen  for. 
Telling  the  student  that  in  perfect  singing  the 
throat  seems  to  be  open  makes  him  keenly  atten- 
tive in  observing  this  characteristic  sound  of  the 
correctly  produced  tone.  This  seems  to  be  the 
most  effective  manner  of  utilizing  the  empirical 
precepts.  A  student  may  be  helped  in  imitating 
correct  models  of  singing  by  knowing  what  char- 
acteristics of  the  tones  it  is  most  important  to 
reproduce.  In  pointing  out  to  the  student  his 
own  faults  of  production,  the  judicious  use  of  the 
precepts  might  also  be  of  considerable  value. 
Probably  the  old  masters  treated  the  precepts 
about  in  this  fashion. 


CHAPTER   VII 

THE  DISAPPEARANCE  OF  THE  OLD  ITALIAN  METHOD 

AND  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  MECHANICAL 

INSTRUCTION 

One  of  the  most  mysterious  facts  in  the  history 
of  Voice  Culture  is  the  utter  disappearance  of  the 
old  Italian  method.  This  has  occurred  in  spite 
of  the  earnest  efforts  of  vocal  teachers  to  preserve 
the  old  traditions.  If  the  conclusions  drawn  in 
the  preceding  chapter  are  justified,  the  old  method 
consisted  of  a  system  of  teaching  singing  by 
imitation.  Assuming  this  to  be  true,  there  should 
now  be  no  difficulty  in  accounting  for  the  disap- 
pearance of  the  imitative  method  by  tracing  the 
development  of  the  mechanical  idea. 

Imitative  Voice  Culture  was  purely  empirical 
in  the  ordinary  meaning  of  this  word.  The  old 
masters  did  not  knowingly  base  their  instruction 
on  any  set  of  principles.  They  simply  taught  as 
their  instincts  prompted  them.  There  can  now 
be  no  doubt  that  the  old  masters  were  fully  jus- 
tified in  their  empiricism.     They  taught  singing 

320 


DISAPPEARANCE  OF  OLD  ITALIAN  METHOD       321 

as  Nature  intends  it  to  be  taught.  But  the  old 
masters  were  not  aware  of  the  scientific  soundness 
of  their  position.  So  soon  as  the  correctness  of 
empirical  teaching  was  questioned  they  abandoned 
it  without  an  attempt  at  defense.  As  a  system  of 
Voice  Culture,  the  old  method  occupied  a  weak 
strategic  position.  With  absolute  right  on  its 
side,  it  still  had  no  power  of  resistance  against 
hostile  influences. 

This  does  not  imply  that  the  old  masters  were 
ignorant  men.  On  the  contrary,  the  intellectual 
standard  of  the  vocal  profession  seems  to  have 
been  fully  as  high  two  hundred  years  ago  as  to- 
day. Even  famous  composers  and  musical  the- 
orists did  not  disdain  to  teach  singing.  But  this 
very  fact,  the  generally  high  culture  of  the  old 
masters,  was  an  important  factor  in  the  weakness 
of  the  old  method  against  attack.  The  most  intel- 
ligent masters  were  the  ones  most  likely  to  aban- 
don the  empirical  system  in  favor  of  supposedly 
scientific  and  precise  methods  of  instruction. 

The  hostile  influence  to  which  the  old  Italian 
method  succumbed  was  the  idea  of  mechanical 
vocal  management.  This  idea  entered  almost 
imperceptibly  into  the  minds  of  vocal  teachers 

21 


322  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

in  the  guise  of  a  scientific  theory  of  Voice  Cul- 
ture. A  short  historical  sketch  will  bring  this 
fact  out  clearly.  This  necessitates  a  repetition  of 
some  of  the  material  of  Chapter  I  of  Part  I; 
the  entire  subject  will  however  appear  in  a  new 
light  now  that  the  true  nature  of  the  mechanical 
idea  is  understood. 

From  the  founding  of  the  art  of  Voice  Culture, 
about  1600,  up  to  1741,  no  vocalist  seems  to  have 
paid  any  attention  to  the  anatomy  or  muscular 
movements  of  the  vocal  organs.  In  1741  a  French 
physician,  Ferrein,  presented  to  the  Academy  of 
Sciences  a  treatise  on  the  anatomy  of  the  vocal 
organs,  entitled  ^*De  la  Formation  de  la  Voix  de 
PHomme.''  This  treatise  was  published  in  the 
same  year,  and  it  seems  to  have  attracted  at  once 
the  attention  of  the  most  enlightened  masters  of 
singing.  That  Ferrein  was  the  first  to  call  the 
attention  of  vocalists  to  the  mechanical  features 
of  tone-production  is  strongly  indicated  in  the 
German  translation  of  Tosi's  *  ^  Observations. ' ' 
In  the  original  Italian  edition,  1723,  and  the 
English  translation,  1742,  there  is  absolutely  no 
mention  of  the  anatomy  or  physiology  of  the  vocal 
organs.     But  in  preparing  the  German  edition, 


DISAPPEARANCE  OF  OLD  ITALIAN  METHOD       323 

published  in  1757,  the  translator,  J.  F.  Agricola, 
inserted  a  description  of  the  vocal  organs  which 
he  credited  directly  to  Ferrein. 

Mancini  followed  Agricola 's  example,  and  in- 
cluded in  this  ^^Eiflessioni"  (1776)  a  brief 
description  of  the  vocal  organs.  But  Mancini 
made  no  attempt  to  apply  this  description  in 
formulating  a  system  of  instruction.  He  recom- 
mends the  parents  of  a  prospective  singer  to 
ascertain,  by  a  physician's  examination,  that  the 
child's  vocal  organs  are  normal  and  in  good 
health.  He  also  gives  one  mechanical  rule,  so 
obvious  as  to  seem  rather  quaint.  *' Every  singer 
must  place  his  mouth  in  a  natural  smiling  posi- 
tion, that  is,  with  the  upper  teeth  perpendicularly 
and  moderately  removed  from  the  lower."  Be- 
yond this  Mancini  says  not  a  word  of  mechanical 
Vocal  management.  There  is  no  mention  of 
breathing,  or  tone  reflection,  or  laryngeal  action. 
Although  Mancini  borrowed  his  description  of  the 
vocal  organs  from  Ferrein,  his  notion  of  the 
mechanics  of  tone-production  was  very  crude. 
**The  air  of  the  lungs  operates  on  the  larynx  in 
singing  exactly  as  it  operates  on  the  head  of  the 
flute." 


324  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

Voice  Culture  has  passed  through  three  suc- 
cessive periods.  From  1600  to  1741  instruction 
in  singing  was  purely  empirical.  Ferrein's  trea- 
tise may  be  said  to  mark  the  beginning  of  a 
transition  period  during  which  empirical  instruc- 
tion was  gradually  displaced  by  so-called  scientific 
methods.  This  transition  period  lasted,  roughly 
speaking,  till  the  invention  of  the  laryngoscope  in 
1855.  Since  that  time  vocal  instruction  has  been 
carried  on  almost  exclusively  along  mechanical 
lines. 

No  vocal  teacher  had  ever  heard  of  a  problem 
of  tone-production  previous  to  1741,  and  indeed 
for  many  years  thereafter.  The  earlier  masters 
were  not  aware  of  any  possibility  of  difficulty  in 
causing  the  voice  to  operate  properly.  Their 
success  justified  their  ignoring  of  any  mechanical 
basis  of  instruction ;  but  even  of  this  justification 
the  later  masters  of  the  old  school  were  only 
dimly  conscious.  They  builded  better  than  they 
knew.  When  any  teacher  of  the  transition  period 
was  called  upon  to  explain  his  manner  of  impart- 
ing the  correct  vocal  action  he  was  at  once  put 
on  the  defensive.  No  champion  of  the  imitative 
faculty  could  be  found.     This  lack  of  understand- 


DISAPPEAEANCE  OF  OLD  ITALIAN  METHOD       325 

ing  of  the  basis  of  the  empirical  method,  on  the 
part  of  its  most  intelligent  and  successful  ex- 
ponents, was  the  first  cause  of  the  weakness  of 
this  method  against  attack. 

Another  source  df  weakness  in  the  hold  of  em- 
pirical systems  on  the  vocal  profession  was  seen 
in  the  generally  high  intellectual  standard  of  the 
more  prominent  teachers.  These  masters  gladly 
accepted  the  new  knowledge  of  the  basis  of  their 
art,  offered  them  in  the  description  of  the  vocal 
organs.  Thoroughly  conversant  with  every  detail 
of  the  empirical  knowledge  of  the  voice,  the 
masters  of  the  transition  period  were  well  pre- 
pared to  understand  something  of  the  mechanical 
features  of  tone-production.  By  their  auditory 
and  muscular  sensations  of  vocal  tone  they  were 
able,  to  their  own  satisfaction  at  least,  to  verify 
the  statements  of  the  anatomists. 

It  is  not  easy  for  us  to  put  ourselves  mentally 
in  the  position  of  a  vocalist,  thoroughly  familiar 
with  the  empirical  knowledge  of  the  voice,  and  yet 
ignorant  of  the  first  principles  of  vocal  mechanics. 
In  all  probability  the  early  masters  were  not  even 
aware  that  tone  is  produced  by  the  action  of  the 
breath  on  the  larynx.    They  did  not  know  that 


326  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

different  qualities  and  pitches  result  from  special 
adjustments  and  contractions  of  the  throat  mus- 
cles. Yet  they  were  keenly  aware  of  all  the 
muscular  sensations  resulting  from  these  contrac- 
tions. We  can  well  imagine  how  interesting  these 
vocalists  of  the  early  transition  period  must  have 
found  the  description  of  the  cartilages  and  muscles 
of  the  throat. 

It  seems  to  us  but  a  short  step  from  the  study 
of  vocal  mechanics  to  the  application  of  the  results 
of  this  study  in  the  formulating  of  a  practical 
system  of  vocal  instruction.  Yet  it  required  more 
than  sixty  years  for  the  vocal  profession  to  travel 
so  far.  Even  then  the  true  bearing  of  this  de- 
velopment of  Voice  Culture  was  but  dimly  real- 
ized. In  1800  the  mechanical  management  of  the 
voice  was  not  even  thought  of.  This  is  con- 
clusively proved  by  a  most  important  work,  the 
Methode  de  Chant  du  Conservatoire  de  Musique, 
published  in  Paris  in  1803. 

There  can  be  no  question  that  this  Methode 
represents  the  most  enlightened  and  advanced 
thought  of  the  vocal  profession  of  that  day.  Not 
only  does  it  contain  everything  then  known  about 
the  training  of  the  voice ;  it  was  drawn  up  with  the 


DISAPPEAEANCE  OF  OLD  ITALIAN  METHOD       327 

same  exhaustive  care  and  analytical  attention  to 
detail  that  were  devoted  to  the  formulation  of  the 
metric  system.  To  mechanical  rules  less  than  one 
page  is  devoted.  Eespiration  is  the  only  subject 
to  receive  more  than  a  few  lines.  A  system  of 
breathing  with  flat  abdomen  and  high  chest  is 
outlined,  and  the  student  is  instructed  to  practise 
breathing  exercises  daily.  Five  lines  are  con- 
tained in  the  chapter  headed  '^De  Pemission  du 
son/'  and  these  five  lines  are  simply  a  warning 
against  throaty  and  nasal  quality.  The  pupil  is 
told  to  stand  erect,  and  to  open  the  mouth  prop- 
erly. But  a  foot-note  is  given  to  the  rule  for  the 
position  of  the  mouth  which  shows  how  thoroughly 
the  mechanical  rule  was  subordinated  to  con- 
siderations of  tone  quality.  /*As  there  is  no  rule 
without  exceptions,  we  think  it  useful  to  observe 
at  what  opening  of  the  mouth  the  pupil  produces 
the  most  agreeable,  sonorous,  and  pure  quality  of 
tone  in  order  to  have  him  always  open  the  mouth 
in  that  manner.T  In  the  main  the  Methode  out- 
lines a  purely  empirical  system  of  instruction, 
based  on  the  guidance  of  the  voice  by  the  ear. 
There  can  be  no  question  that  the  idea  of  mechan- 


328  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

ical  management  of  the  voice  was  introduced  later 
than  1803. 

Citations  might  be  made  to  show  the  gradual 
advance  of  the  mechanical  idea  from  two  interest- 
ing works,  Die  Kunst  des  Gesanges,  by  Adolph  B. 
Marx,  Berlin,  1826,  and  Die  grosse  italienische 
Gesangschule,  by  H.  F.  Mannstein,  Dresden,  1834. 
But  this  is  not  necessary.  It  is  enough  to  say 
that  Scientific  Voice  Culture  was  not  generally 
thought  to  be  identical  with  mechanical  vocal 
management  until  later  than  1855. 

Manuel  Garcia  was  the  first  vocal  teacher  to 
undertake  to  found  a  practical  method  of  instruc- 
tion on  the  mechanical  principles  of  the  vocal 
action.  When  only  twenty- seven  years  old,  in 
1832,  Garcia  determined  to  reform  the  practices 
of  Voice  Culture  by  furnishing  an  improved 
method  of  instruction.  (Grovels  Dictionary.) 
His  first  definite  pronouncement  of  this  purpose 
is  contained  in  the  preface  to  his  Ecole  de  Garcia, 
1847.  *^As  all  the  effects  of  song  are,  in  the  last 
analysis,  the  product  of  the  vocal  organs,  I  have 
submitted  the  study  to  physiological  consid- 
erations." This  statement  of  Garcia 's  idea  of 
scientific  instruction  strikes  us  as  a  commonplace. 


DISAPPEAKANCE  OF  OLD  ITALIAN  METHOD       329 

But  that  serves  only  to  prove  how  thoroughly  the 
world  has  since  been  converted  to  the  idea  of 
mechanical  Voice  Culture.  At  that  time  it  was 
generally  believed  to  be  a  distinct  advance. 
Garcia  expected  to  bring  about  a  great  improve- 
ment in  the  art  of  Voice  Culture.  His  idea  was 
that  the  voice  can  be  trained  in  less  time  and  with 
greater  certainty  by  mechanical  than  by  imitative 
methods.  As  for  the  inherent  falsity  of  this  idea, 
that  has  been  sufficiently  exposed,  f 

So  soon  as  the  theory  of  mechanfical  vocal  man- 
agement began  to  find  acceptance,  the  old  method 
yielded  the  ground  to  the  new  idea.  That  this 
occurred  so  easily  was  due  to  a  number  of  causes. 
Of  these  several  have  already  been  noted, — the 
readiness  of  the  most  prominent  teachers  to 
broaden  their  field  of  knowledge,  in  particular. 
Other  causes  contributing  to  the  acceptance  of  the 
mechanical  idea  were  the  elusive  character  of 
empirical  knowledge  of  the  voice,  and  the  uncon- 
scious aspect  of  the  instinct  of  vocal  imitation. 
No  master  of  the  later  transition  period  delib- 
erately discarded  his  empirical  knowledge.  This 
could  have  been  possible  only  by  the  master  losing 
his   sense  of  hearing.    Neither   did  the  master 


330  THE   PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

cease  to  rely  on  the  imitative  faculty.  Although 
unconsciously  exercised,  that  was  a  habit  too 
firmly  fixed  to  be  even  intentionally  abandoned. 

Public  opinion  also  had  much  to  do  with  the 
spread  of  the  mechanical  idea.  vTeachers  found 
that  they  could  get  pupils  easier  by  claiming  to 
understand  the  mechanical  workings  of  the  voice^^ 
In  order  to  obtain  recognition,  teachers  were 
obliged  to  study  vocal  mechanics  and  to  adapt 
their  methods  to  the  growing  demand  for  scientific 
instruction. 

No  master  of  this  period  seems  to  have  inten- 
tionally abandoned  the  traditional  method.  Their 
first  purpose  in  adopting  the  new  scientific  idea 
was  to  elucidate  and  fortify  the  old  method. 
Every  successful  master  undoubtedly  taught  many 
pupils  who  in  their  turn  became  teachers.  There 
must  have  been,  in  each  succession  of  master  and 
pupil,  one  teacher  who  failed  to  transmit  the  old 
method  in  its  entirety.  Both  master  and  pupil 
must  have  been  unconscious  of  this.  No  master 
can  be  believed  to  have  deliberately  withheld  any 
of  his  knowledge  from  his  pupils.  Neither  can 
any  student  have  been  aware  that  he  failed  to 
receive  his  master's  complete  method. 


DISAPPEAEANCE  OF  OLD  ITALIAN  METHOD       331 

Let  US  consider  a  typical  instance  of  master 
and  pupil  in  the  later  transition  period.  Instruc- 
tion in  this  case  was  probably  of  a  dual  character. 
Both  teacher  and  pupil  devoted  most  of  their 
attention  to  the  mechanical  features  of  tone-pro- 
duction. Yet  the  master  continued  to  listen  closely 
to  the  student's  voice,  just  as  he  had  done  before 
adopting  the  (supposedly)  scientific  idea  of  in- 
struction. Unconsciously  he  led  the  pupil  to 
listen  and  imitate.  When  the  student  found 
it  difficult  to  apply  the  mechanical  instruction  the 
master  would  say,  '^Listen  to  me  and  do  as  I  do.'\ 
Naturally  this  would  bring  the  desired  result.! 
(Yet  both  master  and  pupil  would  attribute  the 
result  to  the  application  of  the  mechanical  rule.j 
The  student's  voice  would  be  successfully  trained, 
but  he  would  carry  away  an  erroneous  idea  of  the 
means  by  which  this  was  accomplished.  Becom- 
ing a  teacher  in  his  turn,  the  vocalist  taught  in 
this  fashion  would  entirely  overlook  the  unob- 
trusive element  of  imitation  and  would  devote 
himself  to  mechanical  instruction.  He  would,  for 
example,  construe  the  precept,  rSing  with  open 
throat,"  as  a  rule  to  be  directly  applied ;) that  he 
had  acquired  the  open  throat  by  imitating  his 


332  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

master's  tones  this  teacher  would  be  utterly 
unaware. 

More  than  one  generation  of  master  and  pupil 
was  probably  concerned,  in  each  succession,  in  the 
gradual  loss  of  the  substance  of  the  old  method. 
The  possibility  of  learning  to  sing  by  imitation 
was  only  gradually  lost  to  sight.  This  is  well 
expressed  by  Paolo  Guetta.  ''The  aphorism  'lis- 
ten and  imitate,'  which  was  the  device  of  the 
ancient  school,  coming  down  by  way  of  tradition, 
underwent  the  fate  of  all  sane  precepts  passed 
along  from  generation  to  generation.  Through 
elimination  and  individual  adaptation,  through 
assuming  the  personal  imprint,  it  degenerated 
into  a  purely  empirical  formula."  (//  Canto  nel 
suo  Mecanismo,  Milan,  1902.) 

Guetta  is  himself  evidently  at  a  loss  to  grasp 
the  significance  of  the  empirical  formula,  "Listen 
and  imitate."  He  seems  however  to  be  aware  of 
an  antagonism  between  imitation  and  mechanical 
vocal  management.  The  reason  of  this  antag- 
onism has  already  been  noticed,  but  it  will  bear 
repetition.  For  a  teacher  to  tell  a  pupil  to 
"hold  your  throat  open  and  imitate  my  tone," 
is  to  demand  the  impossible.     A  conscious  effort 


DISAPPEAEANCE  OF  OLD  ITALIAN  METHOD       333 

directly  to  hold  the  throat  open  only  causes  the 
throat  to  sti£fen^j  In  this  condition  the  normal 
action  of  the  voice  is  upset  and  the  pupil  cannot 
imitate  the  teacher's  voice. 

This  was  the  condition  confronting  the  teacher 
of  the  second  generation  in  the  ^^maestral  suc- 
cession'' just  considered.  He  found  his  pupils 
unable  to  get  with  their  voices  the  results  which 
had  come  easily  to  him.  Attributing  his  satis- 
factory progress  as  a  student  to  the  mastery  of 
the  supposed  mechanical  principles  of  tone-pro- 
duction, this  teacher  ascribed  his  pupil's  difficul- 
ties to  their  failure  to  grasp  the  same  mechanical 
ideas.  As  a  natural  consequence  he  labored  even 
more  energetically  along  mechanical  lines.  Cu- 
riously, no  teacher  seems  to  have  questioned  the 
soundness  of  the  mechanical  idea.  Failure  on 
the  part  of  the  pupil  to  obtain  the  correct  use  of 
the  voice  served  only  to  make  the  master  more 
insistent  on  mechanical  exercises. 

In  direct  proportion  to  the  prominence  given  to 
the  idea  of  mechanical  management  of  the  voice, 
the  difficulties  of  teachers  and  students  became 
ever  more  pronounced.  The  trouble  caused  by 
throat   stiffness  led   the   teachers   to    seek  new 


334  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

means  for  imparting  the  correct  vocal  action, 
always  along  mechanical  lines.  In  this  way  the 
progress  of  the  mechanical  idea  was  accelerated, 
and  the  problem  of  tone-production  received  ever 
more  attention. 

Faith  in  the  imitative  faculty  was  gradually 
undermined  by  the  progress  of  the  mechanical 
idea.  With  each  succeeding  generation  of  master 
and  pupil,  the  mechanical  idea  became  more  firmly 
established.  Something  akin  to  a  vicious  circle 
was  involved  in  this  progress.  As  attention  was 
paid  in  practical  instruction  to  the  mechanical 
operations  of  the  voice,  so  the  voice's  instinctive 
power  of  imitation  was  curtailed  by  throat  stiff- 
ness This  served  to  make  more  pressing  the 
apparent  need  of  means  for  the  mechanical  man- 
agement of  the  voice.  Thus  the  mechanical  idea 
found  ever  new  arguments  in  its  favor,  based 
always  on  the  difficulties  itself  had  caused. 

It  is  impossible  to  assign  a  precise  date  to  the 
disappearance  of  the  old  Italian  method.  The 
last  exponent  of  the  old  traditions  was  Francesco 
Lamperti,  who  retired  from  active  teaching  in 
1876.  Yet  even  Lamperti  finally  yielded,  in 
theory  at  least,  to  the  mechanical  idea.    In  the 


DISAPPEAEANCE  OF  OLD  ITALIAN  METHOD       335 

closing  years  of  his  active  life  as  a  teacher  (1875 
and  1876),  Lamperti  wrote  a  book  descriptive  of 
his  method,  A  Treatise  on  the  Art  of  Singing^ 
(translated  into  English  by  J.  C.  Griffith  and  pub- 
lished by  Ed.  Schuberth  &  Co.,  New  York).  When 
this  work  was  about  ready  for  the  press,  Lamperti 
read  Dr.  MandPs  Gesundheitslehre  der  Stimme, 
containing  the  first  definite  statement  of  the 
opposed-muscular-action  theory  of  breath-control. 
At  the  last  moment  Lamperti  inserted  a  note  in 
hig  book  to  signify  his  acceptance  of  this  theory. 
(  Vocal  mechanics  was  at  first  studied  by  teachers 
of  singing  as  a  matter  of  purely  academic  interest. 
No  insufficiency  of  imitative  teaching  had  ever 
been  felt.  Teachers  of  the  transition  period,  even 
so  late  probably  as  1830,  had  in  most  cases  no 
reason  to  be  dissatisfied  with  their  methods  of 
instruction.  Garcia  himself  started  out  modestly 
enough  to  place  the  traditional  method,  received 
from  his  father,  on  a  definite  basis.  His  first  idea, 
announced  in  the  preface  to  the  first  edition  of  his 
Ecole  de  Garcia,  was  to  ** reproduce  my  father's 
method,  attempting  only  to  give  it  a  more  the- 
oretical form,  and  to  connect  results  with  causes." 
I  Interest  in  the  mechanics  of  the  voice  continued 


336  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

to  be  almost  entirely  academic  until  the  invention 
of  the  laryngoscope  in  1855.  Then  the  popular 
note  was  struck.  The  marvelous  industrial  and 
scientific  progress  of  the  preceding  fifty  years  had 
prepared  the  world  to  demand  advancement  in 
methods  of  teaching  singing,  as  in  everything  else. 
When  the  secrets  of  the  vocal  action  were  laid 
bare,  a  new  and  better  method  of  teaching  singing 
was  at  once  expected.  Within  very  few  years 
scientific  knowledge  of  the  voice  was  demanded 
of  every  vocal  teacher. 

Nothing  could  well  be  more  natural  than  a 
belief  in  the  efficacy  of  scientific  knowledge  of  the 
vocal  organs  as  the  basis  of  instruction  in  singing. 
Surely  no  earnest  investigator  of  the  voice  can 
be  criticized  for  adopting  this  belief.  No  one  ever 
thought  of  questioning  the  soundness  of  the  new 
scientific  idea.  The  belief  was  everywhere  ac- 
cepted, as  a  matter  of  course,  that  methods  of 
instruction  in  singing  were  about  to  be  vastly 
improved.  Vocal  theorists  spoke  confidently  of 
discovering  means  for  training  the  voice  in  a  few 
months  of  study.  The  singer's  education  under 
the  old  system  had  demanded  from  four  to  seven 
years ;  science  was  expected  to  revolutionize  this, 


DISAPPEARANCE  OF  OLD  ITALIAN  METHOD       337 

and  to  accomplish  in  months  what  had  formerly 
required  years. 

Even  then  tone-production  was  not  seen  to  be 
a  distinct  problem.  The  old  imitative  method  was 
still  successfully  followed.  No  one  thought  of 
discarding  the  traditional  method,  but  only  of 
improving  it  by  reducing  it  to  scientific  principles. 
But  that  could  not  last.  Soon  after  the  attempt 
began  to  be  made  to  manage  the  voice  mechan- 
ically, tone-production  was  found  to  contain  a  real 
problem.  This  was  of  course  due  to  the  intro- 
duction of  throat  stiffness. 

From  that  time  on  (about  1860  to  1865),  the 
problem  of  tone-production  has  become  steadily 
more  difficult  of  solution  in  each  individual  case. 
This  problem  has  been,  since  1865,  the  one  absorb- 
ing topic  of  Voice  Culture.  Probably  the  most 
unfortunate  single  fact  in  the  history  of  Voice 
Culture  is  that  scientific  study  of  the  voice  was 
from  the  beginning  confined  solely  to  the  mechan- 
ical features  of  tone-production.  Had  scientific 
investigators  turned  their  attention  also  to  the 
analysis  of  the  auditory  impressions  of  vocal 
tones,  and  to  the  psychological  aspect  of  tone- 
production,  scientific  instruction  in  singing  would 

22 


338  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

probably  not  have  been  identified  with  mechanical 
management  of  the  voice.  All  the  subsequent 
difficulties  of  the  vocal  profession  would  almost 
certainly  have  been  avoided. 

Every  attempt  at  a  solution  of  the  problem  of 
tone-production  has  been  made  along  strictly 
mechanical  lines.  Attention  has  been  devoted 
solely  to  the  anatomy  and  physiology  of  the  vocal 
organs,  and  to  the  acoustic  principles  of  the  vocal 
action.  Since  1865  hardly  a  year  has  passed  with- 
out some  important  contribution  to  the  sum  of 
knowledge  of  the  vocal  mechanism.  For  many 
years  this  development  of  Vocal  Science  was 
eagerly  followed  by  the  vocal  teachers.  Any 
seemingly  authoritative  announcement  of  a  new 
theory  of  the  voice  was  sure  to  bring  its  re- 
ward in  an  immediate  influx  of  earnest  students. 
Prominent  teachers  made  it  their  practice  to  spend 
their  vacations  in  studying  with  the  famous 
specialists  and  investigators.  Each  new  theory 
of  the  vocal  action  was  at  once  put  into  practice, 
or  at  any  rate  this  attempt  was  made.  Yet  each 
new  attempt  brought  only  a  fresb  disappointment. 
The  mystery  of  the  voice  was  only  deepened  with 
each  successive  failure  at  solution. 


DISAPPEARANCE  OF  OLD  ITALIAN  METHOD       339 

A  review  in  detail  of  the  development  of  Vocal 
Science  would  be  of  only  academic  interest.  Very 
little  of  practical  moment  would  probably  be 
added  to  the  outline  of  modern  methods  contained 
in  Part  I. 

Teachers  of  singing  at  present  evince  an  atti- 
tude of  skepticism  toward  new  theories  of  the 
vocal  action.  Voice  Culture  has  settled  along 
well-established  lines.  In  the  past  fifteen  years 
little  change  can  be  noted  in  the  practices  of  vocal 
teachers.  The  mechanical  idea  is  so  firmly  estab- 
lished that  no  question  is  ever  raised  as  to  its 
scientific  soundness.  Under  the  limitations  im- 
posed by  this  erroneous  idea,  teachers  do  their 
best  to  train  the  voices  entrusted  to  their  care. 

Vocal  Science  is  of  vastly  less  importance  in 
modern  Voice  Culture  than  the  world  in  general 
supposes.  Only  an  imaginary  relation  has  ever 
existed  between  the  scientific  knowledge  of  the 
voice  and  practical  methods  of  instruction.  To 
cause  the  summits  of  the  arytenoid  cartilages,  for 
example,  to  incline  toward  each  other  is  entirely 
beyond  the  direct  power  of  the  singer.  How 
many  similar  impossibilities  have  been  seriously 
advocated  can  be  known  only  to  the  academic 


340  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

student  of  Vocal  Science.  Vocal  teachers  in  gen- 
eral have  ceased  to  attempt  any  such  application 
of  the  doctrines  of  Vocal  Science.  Even  if 
these  doctrines  could  be  shown  to  be  scien- 
tifically sound  it  would  still  be  impossible  to 
devise  means  for  applying  them  to  the  manage- 
ment of  the  voice.  Accepted  Vocal  Science  has 
contributed  only  one  element  of  the  practical 
scheme  of  modern  voice  culture;  this  is  the 
erroneous  notion  that  the  vocal  organs  require 
to   be  managed  mechanically. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

THE   MATEEIALS   OF   EATIONAL   INSTRUCTION  IN 
SINGING 

Peactical  methods  of  instruction  in  singing 
may  be  judged  by  their  results  fully  as  well  as  by 
a  scientific  analysis  of  their  basic  principles.  If 
the  progress  of  the  art  of  singing  in  the  past  fifty 
years  has  been  commensurate  with  the  amount  of 
study  devoted  to  the  operations  of  the  vocal 
mechanism,  then  the  value  of  present  methods  is 
established.  Otherwise  the  need  is  proved  for 
some  reform  in  the  present  system  of  training 
voices.  Judged  by  this  standard  modern  methods 
are  not  found  to  be  satisfactory.  There  has  been 
no  progress  in  the  art  of  singing ;  exactly  the  con- 
trary is  the  case.  A  prominent  vocalist  goes  so 
far  as  to  say  that  ''vocal  insufficiency  and  decay 
are  prevalent."  (The  Singing  of  the  Future, 
D.  FrangQon-Davies,  M.A.,  1906.)  It  is  perhaps 
an  exaggeration  of  the  condition  to  call  it  **  in- 
sufficiency and  decay."    Yet  a  gradual  decline  in 

341 


342  THE  PSYCHOLOGY   OF   SINGING 

the  art  of  singing  must  be  apparent  to  any  lover 
of  the  art  who  has  listened  to  most  of  the  famous 
singers  of  the  past  twenty  or  twenty-five  years. 
Operatic  performance  has  been  improved  in  every 
other  respect,  but  pure  singing,  the  perfection  of 
the  vocal  art,  has  become  almost  a  rarity.  This 
is  true  not  only  of  coloratura  singing;  it  applies 
with  almost  equal  force  to  the  use  of  the  singing 
voice  for  the  purpose  of  dramatic  and  emotional 
expression. 

Musical  critics  are  beginning  to  comment  on  the 
decline  of  singing.  They  seek  naturally  for  the 
causes  of  this  decline.  Many  influences  are  cited 
by  different  writers,  each  of  which  has  undoubt- 
edly contributed  something  toward  lowering  the 
present  standard  of  singing.  Most  influential 
among  these  contributing  causes,  in  the  general 
opinion,  is  the  dramatic  style  of  singing  demanded 
in  Wagner's  later  operas.  Yet  several  writers 
point  out  that  the  roles  of  Tristan,  Brunnhilde, 
etc.,  are  vastly  more  effective  when  well  sung  than 
when  merely  shouted  or  declaimed.  A  change  in 
the  public  taste  is  also  spoken  of.  Audiences  are 
said  to  be  indifferent  to  the  older  operas,  written 
to  suit  the  style  of  florid  singing.    But  even  this 


MATEEIALS    OF   EATIONAL    INSTEUCTION         343 

statement  does  not  pass  unchallenged.  A  promi- 
nent critic  asserts  that  ^'the  world  is  still  hungry" 
for  florid  singing.  *'It  is  altogether  likely,"  con- 
tinues this  writer,  *Hhat  composers  would  begin 
to  write  florid  works  again  if  they  were  assured 
of  competent  interpretation,  for  there  is  always  a 
public  eager  for  music  of  this  sort."  This  critic 
asserts  that  the  decline  of  coloratura  singing  is 
due  to  the  indifference  of  the  artists  themselves 
to  this  style  of  singing. 

Still  another  commentator  ascribes  the  decline 
of  pure  singing  in  recent  years  to  the  rise  of  a 
new  school  of  dramatic  interpretation  among  the 
younger  operatic  artists.  **  Nowadays  it  is  not 
the  singing  that  counts.  It  is  the  interpretation; 
and  the  chances  are  there  will  be  more  and  more 
interpretation  and  less  and  less  singing  every 
year."  Even  this  view  has  its  limitations.  Faith- 
ful dramatic  interpretation,  and  attention  to  all 
the  details  of  make-up  and  "business,"  are  not  in 
any  way  antagonistic  to  pure  singing.  One  of  the 
most  potent  means  of  emotional  expression  is 
vocal  tone  color.  But  the  skilful  use  of  expressive 
tone  quality  is  possible  only  to  a  singer  possessed 
of  a  perfect  command  of  all  the  resources  of  the 


344  THE    PSYCHOLOGY   OF   SINGING 

voice.  Many  vocal  shortcomings  are  forgiven  in 
the  singer  of  convincing  interpretive  power.  This 
is  probably  an  important  factor  in  influencing  the 
younger  generation  of  artists  to  devote  so  much 
attention  to  interpretation. 

More  important  than  any  of  the  reasons  just 
given  to  account  for  the  present  state  of  the  art 
of  singing,  is  the  decline  in  the  art  of  training 
voices.  The  prospects  of  an  improvement  in  the 
art  of  Voice  Culture,  imagined  by  the  early  inves- 
tigators of  the  vocal  mechanism,  have  not  been 
realized.  Voice  Culture  has  not  progressed  in 
the  past  sixty  years.  Exactly  the  contrary  has 
taken  place.  Before  the  introduction  of  mechan- 
ical methods  every  earnest  vocal  student  was  sure 
of  learning  to  use  his  voice  properly,  and  of 
developing  the  full  measure  of  his  natural  endow- 
ments. Mechanical  instruction  has  upset  all  this. 
Nowadays  the  successful  vocal  student  is  the 
exception.  Even  those  students  who  succeed  in 
acquiring  sufficient  command  of  their  voices  to 
win  public  acceptance  are  unable  to  master  the 
finest  points  of  vocal  technique. 

Perfect  singing  is  becoming  rare,  mainly  be- 
cause the  technical  mastery  of  the  voice  cannot  be 


MATERIALS    OF   EATTONAL    INSTRUCTION         345 

acquired  under  modern  methods  of  instruction. 
These  methods  have  been  found  unsatirfactory  in 
every  way.  A  change  must  be  made  in  the  prac- 
tices of  Voice  Culture ;  its  present  state  cannot  be 
regarded  as  permanent.  Modern  methods  are  not 
truly  scientific.  There  is  at  present  no  justifica* 
tion  for  the  belief  that  the  art  of  Voice  Culture 
is  founded  an  assured  scientific  principles.  This 
does  not  by  any  means  invalidate  the  idea  that 
Voice  Culture  is  properly  a  subject  for  scientific 
regulation.  Modern  methods  are  unsatisfactory 
only  because  they  do  not  conform  to  the  funda- 
mental laws  of  science.  In  order  to  erect  a  satis- 
factory art  of  Voice  Culture  it  is  necessary  only 
that  the  art  be  brought  into  conformity  with 
scientific  principles. 

No  sweeping  reform  of  modern  methods  is 
called  for.  A  thorough  application  of  scientific 
principles  in  the  training  of  voices  demands  only 
one  thing, — the  abandonment  of  the  idea  of  me- 
chanical vocal  management.  This  is  not  a  back- 
ward step;  on  the  contrary,  it  means  a  distinct 
advance.  Once  freed  from  the  burden  of  the 
mechanical  idea,  the  art  of  Voice  Culture  will  be 


346  THE   PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

in  position  to  advance,  even  beyond  the  ideals  of 
the  old  masters. 

Nothing  could  well  be  simpler  than  the  dropping 
of  the  mechanical  idea.  It  was  pointed  out  in  the 
review  of  modern  methods  that  most  of  the  time 
spent  in  giving  and  taking  lessons  is  devoted  to 
actual  singing  by  the  student.  This  is  exactly 
what  rational  instruction  means.  Were  it  not  for 
the  evil  influence  of  the  mechanical  idea,  the 
results  of  present  instruction  would  in  most  cases 
be  satisfactory.  It  is  only  in  consequence  of  the 
attention  paid  to  the  mechanical  workings  of  the 
vocal  organs  that  throat  stiffness  is  interposed 
between  the  ear  and  the  voice.  Let  the  mechan- 
ical idea  be  dropped,  and  instruction  may  be  car- 
ried on  exactly  as  at  present.  There  will  be  only 
one  marked  difference, — throat  stiffness  will  cease 
to  be  a  source  of  difficulty. 

'  It  is  for  the  individual  teacher  to  change  his 
own  practices.  This  could  be  done  so  easily  that 
students  would  hardly  note  a  change  in  the  form 
of  instruction.  Simply  call  the  pupiPs  attention 
always  to  the  quality  of  the  tones,  and  never  to 
the  throat.  Cease  to  talk  of  breathing  and  of 
laryngeal  action,  and  these  subjects  will  never 


MATERIALS    OF    RATIONAL    INSTRUCTION         347 

suggest  themselves  to  the  student's  mind.  Con- 
tinue to  have  the  student  sing  vocalises,  scales, 
songs,  and  arias,  just  as  at  present.  Teach  the 
student  to  listen  closely  to  his  own  voice,  and 
familiarize  him  with  correct  models  of  singing. 
This  covers  the  whole  ground  of  rational  Voice 
Culture. 

•^  It  is  a  great  mistake  to  suppose  that  a  vocal 
student  comes  to  the  teacher  with  a  definite  idea 
of  the  need  of  direct  vocal  management.  Several 
months  of  study  are  required  before  the  student 
begins  to  grasp  the  teacher's  idea  of  mechanical 
management  of  the  voice.  Even  then  the  student 
rarely  comes  to  a  clear  understanding  of  the  me- 
chanical idea.  In  the  great  majority  of  cases  the 
student  never  gets  beyond  the  vague  notion  that 
he  must  **do  something"  to  bring  the  tones.  Yet 
this  vague  idea  is  enough  to  keep  his  attention 
constantly  directed  to  his  vocal  organs,  and  so  to 
hamper  their  normal  activity.  So  soon  as  a 
teacher  drops  the  mechanical  idea,  his  pupils  will 
not  think  of  their  throats,  nor  demand  mechanical 
instruction.  There  will  be  no  need  of  his  caution- 
ing his  pupils  not  to  pay  attention  to  the  muscular 
workings  of  the  vocal  organs.    No  vocal  student 


348  THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   SINGING 

ever  would  do  this  were  the  practice  not  demanded 
in  modern  methods. 

At  first  thought  it  may  seem  that  for  a  teacher 
to  drop  all  mechanical  instruction  would  leave  a 
great  gap  in  his  method.  How  is  the  correct 
vocal  action  to  be  imparted  to  the  pupil  if  not  by 
direct  instruction  to  this  end?  This  question  has 
already  been  answered  in  preceding  chapters,  but 
the  answer  may  well  be  repeated.  The  correct 
vocal  action  is  naturally  and  instinctively  adopted 
by  the  voice  without  any  attention  being  paid  to 
the  operations  of  the  vocal  mechanism.  It  is 
necessary  only  that  the  student  sing  his  daily 
exercises  and  listen  to  his  voice.  The  voice's  own 
instinct  will  lead  it  gradually  to  the  perfect  action. 
Nothing  need  be  substituted  for  mechanical  in- 
struction. Present  methods  of  Voice  Culture  will 
be  in  every  way  complete,  they  will  leave  nothing 
to  be  desired,  when  the  mechanical  idea  is  aban- 
doned. This  change  in  the  character  of  vocal 
instruction  will  not  be  in  any  sense  a  return  to 
empiricism.  It  will  be  a  distinct  advance  in  the 
application  of  scientific  principles. 

When  fully  understood,  a  practical  science  of 
Voice  Culture  is  seen  to  embrace  only  three  topics, 


MATEEIALS    OF   EATIONAL    INSTRUCTION         349 

— the  musical  education  of  the  student,  the  train- 
ing of  the  ear,  and  the  acquirement  of  skill  in  the 
use  of  the  voice.  The  avoidance  of  throat  stiff- 
ness is  not  properly  a  separate  topic  of  Vocal 
Science,  as  in  rational  instruction  nothing  should 
ever  be  done  to  cause  the  throat  to  stiffen.  Let 
us  consider  in  detail  these  three  topics  of  practical 
Vocal  Science. 

The  Musical  Education  of  a  Singer 

Every  singer  should  be  a  well-educated  and 
accomplished  musician.  This  does  not  mean  that 
the  singer  must  be  a  capable  performer  on  the 
piano  or  violin;  yet  some  facility  in  playing  the 
piano  is  of  enormous  benefit  to  the  singer.  A 
general  understanding  of  the  art  of  music  is  not 
necessarily  dependent  on  the  ability  to  play  any 
instrument.  The  rudiments  of  music  may  quite 
well  be  mastered  through  the  study  of  sight 
singing.  This  was  the  course  adopted  by  the 
old  masters,  and  it  will  serve  equally  well  in  our 
day. 

One  of  the  evil  results  of  the  introduction  of  the 
mechanical  idea  in  Voice  Culture  is  that  almost 
the  entire  lesson  time  is  devoted  to  the  matter  of 


350  THE   PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

tone-production.  To  the  rudiments  of  music  no 
attention  whatever  is  usually  paid.  Many  vocal 
students  realize  the  need  of  a  general  musical 
training,  and  seek  it  through  studying  the  piano 
and  through  choir  and  chorus  singing.  But  the 
vocal  teacher  seldom  finds  time  to  teach  his  pupils 
to  read  music  at  sight.  This  is  a  serious  mistake. 
The  artistic  use  of  the  voice  is  dependent  on  the 
possession  of  a  trained  ear  and  a  cultured  musical 
taste.  Ear  training  and  musical  culture  are 
greatly  facilitated  by  a  knowledge  of  the  technical 
basis  of  the  art  of  music.  This  latter  is  best  ac- 
quired, by  the  vocal  student  at  any  rate,  through 
the  study  of  sight  reading. 

Sight  singing  and  the  rudiments  of  music  are 
taught  to  better  advantage  in  class  work  than  in 
private  individual  instruction.  The  class  system 
also  secures  a  great  saving  of  time  to  the  teacher. 
Every  teacher  should  form  a  little  class  in  sight 
reading  and  choral  singing,  made  up  of  all  his 
pupils.  An  hour  or  an  hour  and  a  half  each  week, 
devoted  by  the  entire  class  to  the  study  of  sight 
singing  and  simple  part  songs  and  choruses,  would 
give  an  ample  training  to  all  the  pupils  in  this 
important  branch  of  the  art  of  music. 


MATERIALS    OF   EATIONAL    INSTRUCTION         351 

Many  vocal  teachers  advise  their  pupils  not  to 
sing  in  choirs  and  choruses.  There  m^.j  be  some 
ground  for  the  belief  that  students  are  apt  to  fall 
into  bad  vocal  habits  while  singing  in  the  chorus. 
But  this  risk  is  entirely  avoided  by  the  teacher 
having  his  pupils  sing  in  his  own  chorus,  under  his 
own  direction. 

Another  important  feature  of  the  musical  edu- 
cation is  the  hearing  of  good  music  artistically 
performed.  Vocal  students  should  be  urged  to 
attend  the  opera  and  the  orchestral  concerts. 
They  should  become  familiar  with  the  different 
forms  of  composition  by  actually  hearing  the  mas- 
terpieces of  music.  Chamber  music  concerts,  song 
recitals,  and  oratoric  performances, — all  are  of 
great  advantage  to  the  earnest  student.  When 
students  attend  the  opera,  or  hear  the  great 
singers  in  concerts  and  recitals,  they  should  listen 
to  the  singers'  tones,  and  not  wonder  how  the 
tones  are  produced. 

Ear  Training 

No  special  exercises  can  be  given  for  the  train- 
ing of  the  ear.  The  sense  of  hearing  is  developed 
only  by  attentive  listening.     Every  vocal  student 


352  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

should  be  urged,  and  frequently  reminded,  to  form 
tlie  habit  of  listening  attentively  to  the  tones  of 
all  voices  and  instruments.  A  highly  trained 
sense  of  hearing  is  one  of  the  musician's  most 
valuable  gifts.  A  naturally  keen  musical  ear  is 
of  course  presupposed  in  the  case  of  any  one 
desiring  to  study  music.  This  natural  gift  must 
be  developed  by  exercise  in  the  ear's  proper 
function, — listening  to  sounds. 

Experience  in  listening  to  voices  is  made  doubly 
effective  in  the  training  of  the  ear  when  the 
student's  attention  is  called  to  the  salient  char- 
acteristics of  the  tones  heard.  In  this  regard  the 
two  points  most  important  for  the  student  to 
notice  are  the  intonation  and  the  tone  quality. 

Absolute  correctness  of  intonation,  whether  in 
the  voice  or  in  an  instrument,  can  be  appreciated 
only  by  the  possessor  of  a  highly  cultivated  sense 
of  hearing.  Many  tones  are  accepted  as  being  in 
tune  which  are  heard  by  a  very  keen  ear  to  be 
slightly  off  the  pitch,  or  untrue  to  the  pitch.  This 
matter  of  a  tone  being  untrue  to  the  pitch  is  of 
great  importance  to  the  student  of  music.  Many 
instruments,  when  unskilfully  played,  give  out 
tones  of  this  character.     The  tones  are  impure; 


MATEEIALS    OF   RATIONAL    INSTRUCTION         353 

instead  of  containing  only  one  pitch,  each  note 
shades  off  into  pitches  a  trifle  higher,  or  lower, 
or  both.  This  faulty  type  of  tone  is  illustrated 
by  a  piano  slightly  out  of  tune.  On  a  single  note 
of  this  piano  one  string  may  have  remained  in 
perfect  tune,  the  second  may  have  flatted  by  the 
merest  fraction  of  a  semitone,  and  the  third  by  a 
slightly  greater  interval.  When  this  note  is 
played  it  is  in  one  sense  not  out  of  tune.  Yet  its 
pitch  is  untrue,  and  it  shades  off  into  a  slightly 
flat  note.  In  the  case  of  many  instruments, 
notably  the  flute,  the  clarinet,  and  the  French 
horn,  unskilled  performers  often  play  notes  of  this 
character.  But  in  these  instruments  the  com- 
posite character  of  the  note  is  vastly  more  com- 
plex than  in  the  piano.  A  very  keen  ear  is 
required  to  appreciate  fully  the  nature  of  this 
untrueness  to  the  pitch.  But  this  is  exactly  the 
kind  of  ear  the  singer  must  possess,  and  it  can  be 
acquired  only  by  the  experience  of  attentive 
listening. 

The  voice  is  especially  liable  to  produce  tones 
untrue  to  the  pitch.  Stiff-throated  singers  almost 
invariably  exhibit  this  faulty  tendency.  An  ex- 
cessive tension  of  the  throat  hampers  the  vocal 

23 


354  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

cords  in  their  adjustments,  and  the  result  is  an 
impure  tone.  This  is  more  often  the  cause  of 
an  artist  singing  out  of  tune  than  a  deficiency  of 
the  sense  of  hearing.  Many  singers  ** sharp"  or 
**flat"  habitually,  and  are  unable  to  overcome  the 
habit,  even  though  well  aware  of  it  Only  a  voice 
entirely  free  from  stiffness  can  produce  tones  of 
absolute  correctness  and  perfect  intonation.  Du 
Maurier  hit  upon  a  very  apt  description  of  pure  in- 
tonation when  he  said  that  Trilby  always  sang 
'* right  into  the  middle  of  the  note."  As  an  im- 
purity of  intonation  is  almost  always  an  indication 
of  throat  tension,  vocal  teachers  should  be  keenly 
sensitive  to  this  type  of  faulty  tone. 

Tone  quality  is  a  subject  of  surpassing  interest 
to  the  musician.  Whatever  may  be  thought  the 
true  purpose  of  music,  there  can  be  no  question  as 
to  one  demand  made  on  each  individual  instru- 
ment,— it  must  produce  tones  of  sensuous  beauty. 
A  composer  may  delight  in  dissonances;  but  no 
instrument  of  the  orchestra  may  produce  harsh 
or  discordant  tones.  Of  beauty  of  tone  the  ear  is 
the  sole  judge;  naturally  so,  for  the  only  appeal 
of  the  individual  tone  is  to  the  ear.  Melody, 
rhythm,  and  harmony  may  appeal  to  the  intellect, 


MATEEIALS    OF   RATIONAL    INSTRUCTION         355 

but  the  quality  of  each  component  tone  is  judged 
only  by  the  ear. 

Each  instrument  has  its  own  characteristic  tone 
quality.  The  student  of  singing  should  become 
familiar  with  the  sounds  of  the  different  orches- 
tral instruments.  Attention  to  this  is  extremely 
valuable  in  the  training  of  the  ear. 

Beauty  of  tone  was  seen  to  be  the  truest  and 
best  indication  of  the  correct  vocal  action.  The 
voice  has  its  own  tonal  beauty,  entirely  different 
in  character  from  any  artificial  instrument.  Stu- 
dents of  singing  should  listen  for  every  fine  shade 
of  tone  quality  in  the  voices  of  other  singers. 
They  should  learn  to  detect  the  slightest  blemish 
on  the  quality  of  every  tone,  the  slightest  devia- 
tion from  the  correct  pitch. 

As  the  voice  is  guided  by  the  ear,  the  first 
requirement  of  a  singer  is  a  keen  sense  of  hearing. 
For  a  keen  ear  to  be  of  benefit,  the  student  must 
learn  to  listen  to  his  own  voice.  This  is  not  alto- 
gether an  easy  matter.  For  one  to  learn  to  hear 
oneself  justly  and  correctly  requires  considerable 
practice.  The  singer  is  placed  at  a  natural  dis- 
advantage in  listening  to  himself.  This  is  due  to 
two  causes.    In  the  first  place,  the  direct  muscular 


356  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

sensations  of  singing  are  so  complex,  and  so  dis- 
tributed about  the  throat  and  face,  that  the 
singer's  attention  is  apt  to  be  divided  between 
these  and  his  auditory  sensations.  Second,  the 
sound  waves  are  conducted  to  the  ear  internally, 
by  the  vibration  of  the  bones  of  the  head,  as  well 
as  externally,  by  the  air  waves.  The  internally 
conveyed  vibrations  are  a  rumbling  rather  than  a 
true  sound;  the  only  true  tone  is  the  external 
sound,  heard  by  the  singer  in  the  same  way  as  by 
a  listener.  Yet  the  attention  is  more  apt  to  be 
taken  up  with  the  internal  rumbling  than  with  the 
external  tone.  Every  vocal  student  must  be 
taught  to  listen  to  himself,  to  disregard  the 
muscular  sensations  and  the  internal  rumbling, 
and  to  pay  attention  only  to  the  real  tones  of  his 
voice. 

Throat  stiffness  greatly  increases  the  difficulty 
of  listening  to  oneself.  Both  the  muscular  sensa- 
tions and  the  internal  rumbling  are  heightened  by 
the  increased  muscular  tension.  A  stiff-throated 
singer  confounds  the  muscular  with  the  auditory 
sensations;  the  feeling  of  muscular  effort  also 
makes  him  believe  his  tones  to  be  much  more 
powerful  than  they  really  are. 


MATERIALS    OF   RATIONAL   INSTRUCTION        357 

The  Acquirement  of  Skill 

Skill  in  the  use  of  the  voice  is  acquired  solely 
by  practice  in  singing.  Only  one  rule  is  required 
for  the  conduct  of  vocal  practice,  that  is,  that  the 
voice  thrives  on  beautiful  sounds.  Musical  taste 
must  always  guide  the  vocal  student  in  practising. 
The  voice  cannot  well  do  more  than  is  demanded 
by  the  ear.  If  a  student  is  unable  to  distinguish 
a  correct  intonation,  his  voice  will  not  intone 
correctly.  A  student  must  hear  and  recognize  his 
own  faults  or  there  is  no  possibility  of  his  cor- 
recting them.  He  must  be  familiar  with  the  char- 
acteristics of  a  perfect  musical  tone  in  order  to 
demand  this  tone  of  his  voice. 

In  the  student's  progress  the  ear  always  keeps 
slightly  in  advance  of  the  voice.  Both  develop 
together,  but  the  ear  takes  the  lead.  The  voice 
needs  practice  to  enable  it  to  meet  the  demands  of 
the  ear.  As  this  practice  goes  on  day  by  day  the 
ear  in  the  meantime  becomes  keener  and  still  more 
exacting  in  its  demands  on  the  voice. 

To  train  a  voice  is  in  reality  a  very  simple  mat- 
ter. Nothing  is  required  of  the  student  but 
straightforward  singing.     Provided  the  student's 


358  THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

daily  practice  of  singing  be  guided  by  a  naturally 
keen  ear  and  a  sound  musical  taste,  tlie  voice  will 
steadily  progress.  Little  need  be  said  here  about 
the  technical  deman^is  made  on  the  voice  in 
modern  music.  The  standards  of  vocal  technique 
are  well  known  to  all  vocal  teachers,  and  indeed 
to  musicians  generally.  Further,  the  scope  of 
this  work  is  limited  to  the  basic  principle  of  vocal 
technique, — correct  tone-production. 

For  starting  the  voice  properly  on  the  road  to 
the  perfect  action,  intelligently  guided  practice 
alone  is  needed.  This  practice  must  be  carried 
on  under  the  direction  of  a  competent  teacher. 
But  the  teacher  cannot  pay  attention  solely  to  the 
technical  training  of  the  student's  voice.  As  has 
been  seen,  the  training  of  the  voice  is  impossible 
without  the  cultivation  of  the  sense  of  hearing; 
and  this  is  dependent  in  great  measure  on  the 
general  musical  education  of  the  student.  The 
teacher  must  therefore  direct  the  student's  musi- 
cal education  as  the  basic  principle  of  Voice 
Culture. 

The  Avoidance  of  Throat  Stiffness 
A  great  advance  will  be  brought  about  in  the 
profession  of  Voice  Culture  when  vocal  teachers 


.       MATERIALS    OF   RATIONAL    INSTRUCTION        359 

become  thoroughly  familiar  with  the  subject  of 
throat  stiffness.  This  is  the  only  troublesome 
feature  of  the  training  of  voices.  Teachers  must 
be  always  on  the  alert  to  note  every  indication  of 
throat  stiffness.  The  correction  of  faults  of  pro- 
duction has  always  been  recognized  as  one  of  the 
most  important  elements  of  vocal  training. 
Faults  of  production  are  of  two  kinds,  natural 
and  acquired.  Natural  faults  are  exhibited  in 
some  degree  by  every  vocal  student.  These  are 
due  solely  to  the  lack  of  facility  in  the  use  of  the 
voice  and  to  the  beginner's  want  of  experience  in 
•hearing  his  own  voice.  Acquired  faults  develop 
only  as  the  result  of  unnatural  throat  tension. 
The  most  common  cause  of  acquired  faults  of 
tone-production  was  seen  in  the  attempt  con- 
sciously to  direct  the  mechanical  operations  of  the 
voice. 

Equipped  with  a  thorough  understanding  of  the 
subject  of  throat  stiffness,  the  teacher  is  in  no 
danger  of  permitting  his  pupils  to  contract  faulty 
habits  of  tone-production.  Here  the  great  value 
of  the  empirical  knowledge  of  the  voice  is  seen. 
The  slightest  trace  of  incipient  throat  stiffaess 
must  be  immediately  detected  by  the  teacher  in 


360  PSYCHOLOGY   OF    SINGING 

the  sound  of  tlie  pupil's  tones.  To  correct  the 
faulty  tendency  in  the  beginning  is  comparatively 
simple.  By  listening  closely  to  every  tone  sung 
by  his  pupils  in  the  course  of  instruction,  noting 
both  the  musical  character  of  the  tones  and  the 
sympathetic  sensations  of  throat  action,  the 
master  will  never  be  in  doubt  whether  a  tendency 
to  throat  stiffness  is  shown.  In  locating  the 
natural  faults  of  production  the  teacher  will 
also  find  his  empirical  knowledge  of  the  voice 
a  most  valuable  possession. 


CHAPTEE   IX 

OUTLINES  OF  A  PEACTICAL  METHOD  OF  VOICE 
CULTURE 

According  to  the  accepted  idea  of  Voice  Cul- 
ture, the  word  ** method"  is  taken  to  mean  only 
the  plan  supposedly  followed  for  imparting  a  cor- 
rect manner  of  tone-production.  Owing  to  the 
prevalence  of  the  mechanical  idea,  the  acquire- 
ment of  the  correct  vocal  action  has  become  so 
difficult  as  to  demand  almost  the  exclusive  atten- 
tion of  both  teachers  and  students.  Very  little 
time  is  left  for  other  subjects  of  vastly  more  im- 
portance. Aside  from  the  matter  of  tone-pro- 
duction, teachers  do  not  seem  to  realize  the 
importance,  or  even  the  possibility,  of  systematiz- 
ing a  course  of  instruction  in  singing. 

Scientific  Voice  Culture  is  inconceivable  without 
a  systematic  plan  of  procedure.  But  this  is  not 
dependent  on  a  set  of  rules  for  imparting  the 
correct  vocal  action.  Eliminating  the  idea  of 
mechanical  vocal  management  does  not  imply  the 

361 


362  PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

abandonment  of  methodical  instruction  in  singing. 
On  the  contrary,  Voice  Culture  cannot  be  made 
truly  systematic  so  long  as  it  is  based  on  an 
erroneous  and  unscientific  theory  of  vocal  man- 
agement. A  vocal  teacher  cannot  perfect  a  sys- 
tem of  instruction  until  he  has  done  with  the 
mechanical  idea.  Then  he  will  find  himself  to  be 
in  possession  of  all  the  materials  of  a  sound  prac- 
tical method. 

Most  important  of  the  materials  of  a  practical 
method  is  a  comprehensive  repertoire  of  vocal 
music.  Every  teacher  should  have  at  his  com- 
mand a  wide  range  of  compositions  in  every  form 
available  for  the  voice.  This  should  include 
simple  exercises,  vocalises  with  and  without 
words,  songs  of  every  description,  arias  of  the 
lyric,  dramatic,  and  coloratura  type,  and  recita- 
tives, as  well  as  concerted  numbers  of  every 
description.  All  these  compositions  should  be 
graded,  according  to  the  difficulties  they  present, 
both  technical  in  the  vocal  sense,  and  musical. 
For  every  stage  of  a  pupiPs  progress  the  teacher 
should  know  exactly  what  composition  to  assign 
for  study. 

Every  composition  used  in  instruction,  be  it 


PEACTICAL    METHOD    OF   VOICE    CULTURE        363 

simple  exercise  or  elaborate  aria,  should  be  first 
of  all  melodious.  For  the  normally  gifted  student 
the  sense  of  melody  and  the  love  of  singing  are 
almost  synonymous.  Next  to  the  physical  endow- 
ments of  voice  and  ear  the  sense  of  melody  is  the 
vocal  student's  most  important  gift.  This  feeling 
for  melody  should  be  appealed  to  at  every  instant. 
Students  should  not  be  permitted  to  sing  any- 
thing in  a  mechanical  fashion.  Broken  scales, 
*^five  finger  exercises,"  and  mechanical  drills  of 
every  kind,  are  altogether  objectionable.  They 
blunt  the  sense  of  melody,  and  at  the  same  time 
they  tend  to  induce  throat  stiffness.  Beauty  of 
tone  and  of  melody  should  always  be  the  guiding 
principle  in  the  practice  of  singing. 

All  the  elements  of  instruction, — musical  edu- 
cation, ear  training,  and  the  acquirement  of 
facility  in  the  use  of  the  voice, — can  be  combined 
in  the  singing  of  melodious  compositions.  "While 
the  teacher  should  know  the  precise  object  of  each 
study,  this  is  not  necessary  for  the  student.  Have 
the  pupil  simply  sing  his  daily  studies,  with  good 
tone  and  true  musical  feeling,  and  all  the  rest  will 
take  care  of  itself. 

Every  vocal  teacher  will  formulate  his  method 


364  PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

of  instruction  according  to  Ms  own  taste  and 
judgment.  There  will  always  be  room  for  the 
exercise  of  originality,  and  for  the  working  out 
of  individual  ideas.  His  own  experience,  and  his 
judgment  in  each  individual  case,  must  guide  the 
teacher  in  answering  many  important  questions. 
Whether  to  train  a  voice  up  or  down,  whether 
to  pay  special  attention  to  enunciation,  when  to 
introduce  the  trill,  what  form  of  studies  to  use  for 
technique  and  ornament, — these  are  all  matters 
for  the  teacher  to  decide  in  his  own  way. 

Above  all  else  the  teacher  should  seek  to  make 
the  study  of  singing  interesting  to  his  pupils. 
This  cannot  be  done  by  making  the  idea  of  method 
and  of  mechanical  drudgery  prominent.  Singing 
is  an  art;  both  teacher  and  student  must  love 
their  a-rt  or  they  cannot  succeed.  Everything  the 
student  is  called  on  to  do  should  be  a  distinct 
pleasure.  To  master  the  piano  or  the  violin 
many  hours  of  tedious  practice  are  required. 
Students  of  singing  are  indeed  fortunate  to  be 
spared  the  necessity  of  this  tiresome  work.  In 
place  of  two  or  three  hours '  daily  practice  of 
scales  and  exercises,  the  vocal  student  need  do 
nothing  but  sing  good  music. 


PRACTICAL    METHOD    OF   VOICE    CULTURE        365 

Much  is  required  of  a  competent  vocal  teacher. 
First  of  all,  he  must  be  a  cultured  musician  and  a 
capable  judge  both  of  composition  and  of  per- 
formance. Further,  while  not  necessarily  a  great 
singer,  he  must  have  a  thorough  command  of  all 
the  resources  of  his  own  voice.  His  understand- 
ing of  the  voice  should  embrace  a  fair  knowledge 
of  vocal  physiology  and  of  vocal  psychology.  His 
ear  should  be  so  highly  trained,  and  his  experience 
in  hearing  singers  so  wide,  that  he  possess  in  full 
the  empirical  knowledge  of  the  voice.  The  vocal 
teacher  must  be  familiar  with  the  highest  stand- 
ards of  singing.  He  should  hear  the  great  artists 
of  his  day  and  also  be  well  versed  in  the  tradi- 
tions of  his  art. 

A  highly  important  gift  of  the  vocal  teacher  is 
tact.  He  must  know  how  to  deal  with  his  pupils, 
how  to  smooth  over  the  rough  places  of  tempera- 
ment. He  should  be  able  to  foster  a  spirit  of 
comradeship  among  his  pupils,  to  secure  the 
stimulating  effect  of  rivalry,  while  avoiding  the 
evils  of  jealousy.  Tact  is  an  important  element 
also  in  individual  instruction.  Some  students  will 
demand  to  know  the  reason  of  everything,  others 
will  be  content  to  do  as  they  are  told  without 


366  PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

question.  One  student  may  be  led  to  stiffen  his 
throat  by  instruction  which  would  have  no  such 
effect  on  another.  In  every  case  the  teacher  must 
study  the  individual  temperaments  of  his  pupils 
and  adapt  his  method  to  the  character  of  each 
student. 

Practical  instruction,  in  its  outward  aspect, 
should  be  very  simple.  At  one  lesson  the  teacher 
assigns  certain  studies  and  has  the  pupil  sing 
them.  Now  and  then  the  teacher  sings  a  few 
measures  in  order  to  give  the  student  the  correct 
idea  of  the  effects  to  be  obtained.  If  any  pro- 
nounced fault  is  shown  in  the  student's  tones,  the 
master  calls  attention  to  the  fault,  perhaps  imitat- 
ing it,  to  make  it  more  apparent  to  the  student. 
In  his  home  practice  the  student  sings  the  assigned 
studies,  trying  always  to  get  his  tones  pure  and 
true.  At  the  next  lesson  the  same  studies  are 
again  sung,  and  new  compositions  given  for 
further  study. 

A  great  advantage  might  be  gained  by  combin- 
ing three,  four,  or  five  students  in  a  class  and 
giving  lessons  of  an  hour's  time,  or  even  an  hour 
and  a  half.  The  students  might  sing  in  turn,  all 
the  others  listening  to  the  one  who  is  singing. 


PRACTICAL    METHOD    OF    VOICE    CULTURE        367 

This  form  of  instruction  would  be  of  great  service 
in  ear  training,  and  in  acquainting  the  students 
with  the  various  qualities  of  vocal  tone,  both  cor- 
rect and  faulty.  Much  time  would  thus  be  saved 
in  giving  explanations  and  in  pointing  out  the 
characteristics  of  tone  to  be  sought  or  avoided. 
On  the  side  of  musical  education,  instruction  in 
small  classes  would  also  be  found  very  effective. 

A  thorough  understanding  of  Vocal  Science, 
including  both  the  mechanical  features  of  tone- 
production  and  the  psychological  aspects  of  sing- 
ing, is  almost  indispensable  to  the  vocal  teacher. 
But  the  student  of  singing  will  in  most  cases 
derive  no  benefit  from  this  scientific  knowledge. 
Those  students  who  plan  to  become  teachers  must 
of  course  study  Vocal  Science.  Yet  even  these 
students  will  do  well  to  defer  this  study  until  they 
have  acquired  a  thorough  mastery  of  their  voices. 

Musical  progress  would  seem  to  have  taken  a 
peculiar  direction  when  a  voice  need  be  raised  in 
defense  of  the  old  art  of  pure  singing.  Several 
famous  writers  on  musical  subjects  would  have 
us  believe  that  the  love  of  vocal  melody  is  out- 
grown by  one  who  reaches  the  heights  of  musical 


368  PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

development.  This  may  be  true;  but  if  so,  the 
world  has  not  yet  progressed  so  far.  Music  with- 
out melody  may  some  day  be  written.  But  Mozart 
knew  naught  of  it,  nor  Beethoven,  nor  Wagner. 
Melody  is  still  beautiful,  and  never  more  lovely 
than  when  artistically  sung  by  a  beautiful  voice. 
We  have  not  reached  a  point  where  we  can  afford 
to  toss  lightly  aside  the  old  art  of  Bel  Canto. 

For  its  future  development,  if  not  indeed  for 
its  continued  existence,  the  art  of  singing  depends 
on  an  improvement  in  the  art  of  training  voices. 
For  this  to  be  accomplished,  mechanical  methods 
must  be  abandoned.  If  this  work  succeeds  in 
bringing  home  to  the  vocal  profession  the  error 
of  mechanical  instruction  in  singing,  it  will  have 
served  its  purpose. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Pietro  Francesco  Tosi :  Observations  on  the  Florid  Song,    Bologna^ 

1723. 
Giovanni  Battista  Mancini:  Biflessioni  pratiche  sul  Canto  figurato, 

Milan,  1776. 
Georg  Joseph  Vogler:  StimmMldungshunst.     Mannheim,  1776. 
Methode  de  Chant  du  Conservatoire  de  Musique.    Pans,  1803. 
Stefana  Arteaga:    Le  Bevolueioni  del  Teatro  musicale  italiano, 

Venice,  1785. 
Adolph  Bernhard  Marx :  Die  Kunst  des  Gesanges.    Berlin,  1826. 
Heinrich    F.    Mannstein:    Die   grosse    italienische    Gesangschide. 

Dresden,  1834. 
Manuel  Garcia:    Ecole   de   Garcia.     The   Ninth  Edition    (Paris, 

1893)   gives  date  of  first  edition,  1856.     Grove's  Diet,  gives 

1847. 
Proceedings  of  the  Boyal  Soc,  London,  Vol.  2,  May,  1855. 
B^ints  on  Singing.     (Trans,  by  Beata  Garcia).     New  York,  1894. 
Ferdinand    Sieber:    Vollstaendiges   Lehrbuch    der    GesangsTcunst. 

Magdeburg,  1858. 
The  Art  of  Singing.     (Trans,  by  Dr.  F.  Seeger).     New  York, 
1872. 
Stephen  de  la  Madelaine:  Thiorie  compute  du  Chant.    Parii^  1852. 
Lennox    Browne    and   Emil   Behnke:    Voice,   Song,   and  Speech. 

London,  1883. 
John  Howard:   The  Physiology  of  Artistic  Singing.    New  York, 

1886. 
Gordon  Holmes:  A  Treatise  on  Vocal  Physiology  and  Hygiene, 

London,  1879. 

24  369 


370  PSYCPIOLOGY    OF    SINGING 

Emma  Seller:  The  Voice  in  Singing.    Philadelphia,  1886. 
J.  Frank  Botume:  Modern  Singing  Methods.    Boston,  1885. 
Francesco  Lamperti:  A  Treatise  on  the  Art  of  Singing.     (Trans. 

by  J.  C.  Griffith).     New  York.     Original  about  1876. 
Wesley  Mills,  M.  D.:  Voice  Production  in  Singing  and  Speaking. 

Philadelphia,  1906. 
Dr.  W.  Eeinecke:   Die  Kunst  der  idealen  Tonhildung.     Leipzig, 

1906. 
William  Shakespeare:  The  Art  of  Singing.    London,  1898. 
G.  B.  Lamperti:   The  Technics  of  Bel  Canto.     New  York,  1905. 
Paolo  Guetta:  II  Canto  nel  suo  Mecanismo.    Milan,  1902. 
Lilli  Lehmann:  Meine  GesangsTcunst.    Berlin,  1902. 
David  FrangQon-Davies :  The  Singing  of  the  Future.  London,  1906, 
Leo  Kofler:  The  Old  Italian  Method.    Albany,  1880. 
The  Art  of  Breathing.    New  York,  1889. 
Clara  Kathleen  Eogers:  The  Philosophy  of  Singing.    New  York, 

1893. 
Albert  B.  Bach:    The  Principles  of  Singing.     London  (2d  ed.), 

1897: 
Julius  Stockhausen 's  Gesangsmethode.     Leipzig,  1884. 
Sir  Morell  Mackenzie:   The  Hygiene  of  the  Vocal  Organs.    Lon- 
don, 1886. 
Charles  Lunn:  The  Philosophy  of  the  Voice.    Lo;ndon,  1878. 
Antoine   Ferrein:    Be   la   Formation   de   la    Voix   de   rHomme, 

Paris,  1741. 
Sir  Charles  Bell:   On  the  Organs  of  the  Human  Voice.     London, 

1832. 
Carl  Ludwig  Merkel:  Ber  KehlTcopf.    Leipzig,  1873. 
Dr.  L.  Mandl:  Bie  Gesundheitslehre  der  Stimme.    Braunschweig, 

1876. 
George   F.   Ladd:    Outlines  of  Physiological  Psychology.     New 

York,  1892. 
James  M.  Baldwin:  Feeling  and  Will.    New  York,  1894. 


BIBLIOGEAPHY  371 

H.  S.  Curtis:   ''Automatic  Movements  of  the  Larynx/*     Amer. 

Jour.  Psych.,  Vol.  11,  p.  237.     1900. 
H.    L.    F.    Helmholtz:    Die    Lehre    von    den  ^onempfindungen, 

Braunschweig,  1862. 
E.  W.  Scripture:  The  New  Psychology,  London,  1897. 

The  Elements  of  Experimental  Phonetics.     New  York,  1902. 
The  Study  of  Speech  Curves.    Washington,  1906. 
William  James:  The  Principles  of  Psychology.    New  York,  1890. 
Hansen    and    Lehmann:     ''TJeber    unwillkiierliches    Fluestern,'* 

Philo.  Stud.,  Vol.  11,  p.  471.    1895. 
C.  Lloyd  Morgan:   An  Introduction  to  Comparative  Psychology. 

1894. 
Wilhelm   Wundt:    Grundzuege   der  physiologischen   Psychologic. 

Leipzig,  1874. 
Grove  *s  Dictionary  of  Mu^ic  and  Musicians. 
Fetis:  Biographie  universelle  des  Musiciens. 
Musikalisches  Conversations-Lexikon. 
Quellen  Lexikon  der  Musiker.     (Eobt.  Eitner,  Leipzig,  1902.) 


INDEX 


Acoustics  of  voice,  188,  216. 
Anatomy  of  vocal  organs,  211. 
Attack,    51,     53. 

Breathing,    20,    130. 
Breath,  singing  on  the,   14,    27,   32, 
72,    194. 

Candle-flame   test,   221. 
Colorature,    195,    282. 

Decline   of  singing,    341. 

Ear   training,    276,    281,    319,    351. 
Emission,    68,    125,    188. 
Empirical      knowledge,      151,      176, 
181,    359. 

basis    of,    155. 

in    modern    instruction,    75,    199 
207. 

in    traditional    precepts,     184. 
Enunciation,   88. 
Exercises 

for    breath-control,     26,     31. 

for    breathing,    22. 

for  muscular  movements,   46,   50. 

for  relaxing  muscles,    90,    272. 

on    vowels    and    consonants,    85. 

Forward     tone,     14,     68,     71,     125, 
187. 

Garcia,   16,   22,    34,   35,   56,    328. 
Glottic    stroke,    30,    52. 

History  of  voice  culture,   8,  322. 
Howard,  John,   43. 


Imitation,      134,      166,      291, 
307,    309,   324,   332. 


298, 


Intonation,    265,    311,    314,    352. 
Laryngeal  action,    34,   36,  44. 
Larynogoscope,     16,     35,     56,     214, 

215,  258,  336. 
Lessons,  103,  366. 
Local    effort,    273. 

Mancini,    12,   156,   807,   314,   823. 
Mask,  singing  in  the,   74,  81. 
Mechanical    vocal    management,    83, 
102,    109,   113,   135,    271,   287, 
297,    299,   321,   329,   333,   346. 
Mechanics  of  voice,   118,   220,    325, 

335. 
Mental   voice,   180,    188. 
Messa  di   voce,   40,   312. 
Method,   92,   96,   99. 

Old    Italian,    10,    304,    316,    320. 
Methode   de    Chant,   326. 
Muscular   sense,    143,    170. 

stiffness,     240,     251. 

strain,    267. 

Nasal  tone,   62,   129,   205. 
Nervousness,    249,    256. 

Old  Italian  masters,  9,   11,  14,   54, 
306,    320. 
method,    10,    304,    816,   320 
Open   throat,   14,    60,  86,   191. 

Placing  the  Toice,  38,  41,  93,   310. 
Practice,    5,    105,    281,    366. 
Precepts,     13,     72,    76,     184,     186, 

317. 
Problem   of  voice,  4,   7,    287,    324, 

337,    338. 
Psychology    of    muscular    guidance, 

136,    227. 
of    sympathetic    sensations,    165. 


372 


INDEX 


373 


of  Tocal  management,    144,    229, 
297. 
Pure  vowel  theory,   88. 

Quality  of  tone,   40,    62,   156,   179, 
182,    314,    346. 

Radiation    of    nerve    impulse,    251, 

259. 
Reflex  actions,  247,  255. 
Registers,    34,    38,    55,    312,    315. 
Relaxing  exercises,   90,   272. 
Resonance,    54,    58. 

chest,  61,  127. 

mouth-pharynx,    59. 

nasal,    62,    87,    127,    204. 

sounding-board,    44,    65. 

Sensations   of   singing,    160. 

direct,    161,    173. 

in    modem    instruction,    78,    84, 
114. 

muscular,    78. 

sympathetic,    161,    162,    176. 

of  vibration,    54,    55,    58,   80. 
Sight  reading,    309,    310,    313. 
Singing   in   the  mask,    74,    81. 

on    the  breath,    14,    27,    82,    72, 
194. 


Sol-fa,     310,     314. 

Stiffness,  muscular,  240,  251. 

throat,    89,    243,    260,    262,    285, 

356,    358. 
Support    of    tone,    14,    27,    32,    73, 

192. 
Sympathetic    sensations,    161,    162, 

165,    176. 

Technique,    6,    94,    282. 

Throat     stiffness,      89,     243,      260, 

262,   285,    356,   358. 
Tone-producton,    4. 

problem    of    7,     287,     324,     337, 
338. 
Tosi,    12,    55,    63,    156,    307,    308, 

322. 
Traditional    precepts,     13,     14,     76, 
186,    317. 
empirical   basis,    184. 
in    modern    instruction,    72,    77. 
Tremolo,    265,   272. 

Vocal  action,   5,    17,   92,   112,   246. 
Vocal  Science,   17,  19,  37,  98,  152, 
839,    861,    367. 

Wearing  voice   into  place,   101. 


Printed  in  the  United  States  of  America. 


The  Art  of  Singing  and 
Vocal  Declamation 

By 
SIR  CHARLES  SANTLEY 

Crewn  8vo,  $1,23  By  mail,  $i.3S 

Sir  Charles  Santley,  the  famous  English  baritone,  knows  how 
to  write  interestingly  opinions  that  are  entitled  to  respect. 
Friendly  advice  to  young  people  desirous  of  joining  the  vocal  pro- 
fession ;  discussions  of  the  qualifications  necessary  to  form  a, 
singer  ;  of  the  choice  of  a  master ;  of  the  study  of  vocal  works ; 
of  dramatic  conception,  and  of  a  multitude  of  minutiae  in  which 
his  suggestions  as  to  a  singer's  work  and  life  are  of  the  greatest 
help  even  to  those  who  are  not  beginners. 

THE  77M£'5.— **Thereisnotaword  of  technical  polemics 
from  beginning  to  end  ;  on  every  page  there  are  wise  maxims, 
rules  of  life  for  the  singer's  help,  or  general  principles  that  apply 
almost  equally  to  all  arts,  and  certainly  to  all  departments  of 
music.  .  .  ,  There  is  throughout  a  pleasant  sense  of  hearing  a 
great  man  talking,  without  any  great  care  as  to  the  arrangement 
of  what  he  has  to  say,  or  the  choice  of  his  words  ;  and  no  doubt 
many  a  book  will  be  written  in  the  future  upon  the  foundation  of 
this  small  volume,  which  will  not  convey  a  hundredth  part  of  the 
force  or  practical  use  of  the  original." 

THE  MUSICAL  HEI? ALB.—* 'Should  be  widely  read. 
.  .  .  We  close  Sir  Charles  Santley's  book  with  a  sense  of  the 
high  aim,  the  conscientiousness,  the  wisdom  that  peeps  from 
every  page." 

THE  STANDARD.— **Sir  Charles'  book  cannot  but  inspire 
the  young  singer.  As  he  sings,  so  he  writes.  His  utterances 
are  full  of  youthful  enthusiasm,  sincerity,  and  consummate  experi- 
ence. ...  At  the  cant  and  fallacies  of  singing  professors 
the  author  slashes  without  mercy." 

THE  EVENING  STANDARD.— "Contains  in  small  com- 
pass a  truly  remarkable  amount  of  knowledge,  and  of  that  without 
which  a  singing  master  cannot  do  justice  to  himself  or  his  pupils 
—the  knowledge  of  how  to  apply  knowledge." 

Published  by 

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By  MME.  LILLI  LEHMANN 

How  to  Sing 

MME.  LEHMANN  says  of  her  title  t§  nurite  §n  the  Art 
§f  S§ng  {Meine  Getangshunst):  — 

"I  have  been  on  the  stagfe  since  my  eig:hteenth  year  ; 
that  is  for  thirty-four  years.  In  Prague  I  took  part 
every  day  in  operas,  operettas,  plays,  and  farces.  There- 
after 'in  Danzig  I  sang  from  eighteen  to  twenty  times  a 
month  in  coloratura  and  soubrette  parts ;  also  in  Leipzig, 
and  later,  fifteen  years  in  Berlin.  In  addition  I  sang  in 
very  many  oratorios  and  concerts,  and  gave  lessons  now 
and  then.  .  .  .  Now  fifteen  years  more  have  passed, 
of  which  I  spent  eight  very  exacting  ones  as  a  dramatic 
singer  in  America,  afterward  fulfilling  engagements  as  a 
star,  in  all  languages,  in  Germany,  Austria,  Hungary, 
France,  England  and  Sweden.  .  .  .  For  many  years 
I  have  been  devoting  myself  to  the  important  questions 
relating  to  singing,  and  believe  that  I  have  finally  found 
what  I  have  been  seeking.  It  has  been  my  endeavor  to 
set  down  as  clearly  as  possible  all  that  I  have  learned 
through  zealous,  conscientious  study  by  myself  and  with 
others,  and  thereby  to  offer  to  my  colleagues  something 
that  will  bring  order  into  the  chaos  of  their  methods  of 
singing;  something  based  on  science  as  well  as  on  sen- 
sations in  singing  ;  something  that  will  bring  expressions 
often  misunderstood  into  clear  relation  with  the  exact 
functions  of  the  vocal  organs/' 

[Translated  from  the  German  by  Richard  Aldrich. 

With  Portrait,     Cloth,  $1S0 

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Music  Study  in  Germany 

From  the  Home  Correspondence  of 
AMY  FAY 

With  a  Preface  by  SIR  GEORGE  GROVE  and  a  Portrait 

Eighteenth  Edition 

Cloth,    I2m§.    $1.23 


"As  a  handbook  of  the  methods  used  by  some  of  the 
brigfhtest  lights  of  the  musical  world,  it  will  be  of  con- 
siderable value  to  piano  players  and  teachers.  .  .  .  The 
book,  taken  as  a  whole,  is  well  written  ;  in  fact,  one  of  the 
best  of  its  kind,  and  well  deserves  the  perusal  not  only 
of  music  lovers  who  use  it  as  a  manual,  but  of  all  who 
enjoy  a  charming:  bit  of  literature." — Detroit  Tribune. 

**  *  Music  Study  in  Germany'  is  of  great  general  in- 
terest, but  it  is  of  yet  greater  value  to  those  who  are 
concerned  with  the  development  of  their  musical  talent. 
It  is  full  of  hints  to  them,  and  should  certainly  be  read 
by  every  one  who  thinks  of  going  abroad  for  the  com- 
pletion of  a  musical  education.*' — Commercial  Advertiser. 

"Shows  distinguished  literary  ability,  and  should 
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York  Times, 


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A  New  Edition  Revised  and  Greatly  Enlarged 
of 

Grove's  Dictionary  of  Music 
and  Musicians 

EDITED  BY 
J,  A.  FULLER  MAITLAND,  M.A.,  F.S.A. 

Formerly  Musical  Critic  of  The  London  Times. 

In  five  octavo  volumes,  each  illustrated  with  a 
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**We  have  tested  the  new  edition  on  subject  after  sub- 
ject, and  always  it  has  supplied  the  point  sought.  Best 
of  all,  it  is  informed  with  the  spirit  which  Grove  insisted 
upon  at  the  start.  It  tells  the  reader  what  he  wants  to 
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General  Library 

University  of  California 

Berkeley 


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